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THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


CONDUCTED BY 


THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE OF 


THE AMERICAN CLASSICAL LEAGUE 





PART ONE 
GENERAL REPORT 
A Summary of Results with Recommendations for 
the Organization of the Course in Secondary Latin 


and for Improvement in Methods of Teaching 





Princeton UNIversiry PREss 
PRINCETON 
1924 


Copyright 1924 
The American Classical League 


PREFACE 


In presenting this General Report as Part L of the classical in- 
vestigation, our hearty thanks are due to the General Educa- 
tion Board for its liberal help which made the investigation 
possible ; to universities, colleges and schools which gave facili- 
ties for the work; to public, professional, scientific, literary 
and business men who have encouraged the enterprise; to the 
many classical professors and teachers who have served on 
the various committees; to the many professors of education 
and psychology who have been our collaborators and critics ; 
to leading scholars and educational officers in England and 
France for very valuable counsel; to the American University 
Union and the American Library in Paris for help in securing 
French articles and records; to the United States Bureau of 
Education, the College Entrance Examination Board and the 
Department of Education of the State of New York for their 
extensive and indispensable statistical contributions; to our 
State Superintendents of Education for important informa- 
tion; to practically all the classical associations, local, State 
or regional; to the journals and newspapers which have pub- 
lished for us studies, reviews and other articles; to many indi- 
vidual helpers and especially to the more than eight thousand 
self-sacrificing teachers of Latin and Greek, English, French 
and history who have given their time and labor freely to help- 
ing in the investigation. 

The work has taken over three years thus far and has ex- 
tended to all parts of our country. Our purpose has been to 


‘improve the teaching of the classics. We trust that the 


methods used and the conclusions reached will commend 
themselves to all who care for American education. 


The Advisory Committee of the 
AmeErRiIcAN CrassicaLu LEsacuE 
September, 1924 





CONTENTS 
PREFACE 


CHAPTER I. BRIEF HISTORY OF THE CLASSICAL 
INVESTIGATION 


CHAPTER II. STATISTICAL STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK 


Section 1. Introduction 

Section 2. Secondary Schools 

Section 3. Colleges 

Section 4. State Departments of Education 


CHAPTER III. AIMS OR OBJECTIVES IN THE TEACHING 
OF SECONDARY LATIN 


Section 1. Introduction 


Section 2. Procedure in Determining the Validity of Ultimate 
Objectives 


Section 3. The Evaluation of Ultimate Objectives 
i. Instrumental and Application Objectives 
ii. Disciplinary Objectives 
i. Cultural Objectives 


Section 4. An Analysis of the Opinions of Present and Former 
Students of Latin as to Certain Values Arising from the 
Study of Latin 


Section 5. The Relative Emphasis to Be Attached Year by Year 
to All Objectives Determined upon as Valid 


CHAPTER IV. THE CONTENT OF THE COURSE IN 
SECONDARY LATIN 


Section 1. Introduction 
Section 2. Procedure 
Section 3. Examination of the Present Content of the Course 


Section 4. General Recommendations in Regard to the Content 
of the Course 


Section 5. Criteria for the Selection of Reading Content, 
Vocabulary, Syntax and Forms 


Section 6. Specific Recommendations in Regard to the Content 
of the Course 


Section 7. College Entrance Requirements 


85 


123 


124 


144 
162 


CHAPTER V. METHODS OF TEACHING SECONDARY 
LATIN 
Section 1. Introduction 
Section 2. Procedure 
Section 3. Examination of Present Methods 


Section 4. General Principles Determining the Selection of 
Methods of Teaching Secondary Latin 


Section 5. Specific Recommendations in Regard to Methods 
Section 6. The Direct Method 


CHAPTER VI. COMPARATIVE RECORDS OF CLASSICAL 
AND NON-CLASSICAL PUPILS 
Section 1. Introduction 


Section 2. Certain College Board Records over a Ten-Year 
Period 


Section 3. An Analysis of the College Board Records of 10,000 
Candidates 


Section 4. Extent to Which the Superiority of These Latin 
Students Is Due to the Study of Latin 


CHAPTER VII. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND COMMENTS 
Section 1. 'The Situation in Latin 
Section 2. Present State of Greek in the Schools 
Section 3. Greek for Latin Teachers 
Section 4. Combined Teaching of English, Latin and Greek 


Section 5. Combined Teaching of Classical and Modern 
Foreign Languages 


Section 6. The Six-Year Latin Course 
Section 7. The Six-Year Secondary School 


Section 8. The Classics in England, France, Germany and 
Italy since the World War 


APPENDIX A. TABLES I-XIII ILLUSTRATING CHAPTER II 


APPENDIX B. QUOTATIONS ON METHODS OF TEACHING 
THE COMPREHENSION OF LATIN 


INDEX 


169 


169 
170 
171 


18] 
188 
233 


236 
236 


237 


238 


239 


QT 
247 
252 
255 
256 
257 
Q57 
260 


262 


269 


288 


303 


CHAPTER 
Brier Hisrory or THE CuassicaL INVESTIGATION 


N May, 1920, the General Education Board indicated to 

the American Classical League its willingness to finance an 
investigation of the classics in American secondary schools. 
In June, 1920, the American Classical League took the fol- 
lowing action: 

‘Whereas a full and accurate inquiry into the status of the 
classics in our secondary schools is very desirable, 

“And whereas the American Classical League is informed 
that the General Education Board is favorable to the under- 
taking of such an inquiry and is also favorable to defraying 
the reasonable expenses of such an inquiry, 

“And whereas the American Classical League is the only 
national body representing all the leading classical associa- 
tions of the United States, 

‘Resolved that the President of the American Classical 
League is hereby authorized to appoint a special committee 
which shall have complete power to negotiate this matter with 
the General Education Board and to select an Advisory Com- 
mittee and expert investigators to conduct the inquiry, 

“And be it further resolved that the said Special Commit- 
tee is also empowered to take whatever other steps may in 
their judgment seem advisable in connection with the pro- 
posed inquiry.” 

After two preliminary conferences and much correspond- 
ence the following plan for the proposed investigation was 
adopted by the Special Committee of the American Classical 
League, in January, 1921, for presentation to the General 
Education Board: : 


THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Programme of Investigation 


I. The investigation will naturally have three stages: 


tf 


a 


A careful inquiry into the relevant facts so that the 
existing situation may be clearly known. 

Then an analysis and an impartial criticism of the as- 
certained facts. 


. Finally, and most important of all, the preparation of 


a progressive constructive plan for the teaching of 
the classics in the secondary schools of the United 
States. 


II. The subjects to be considered under these aspects are the 


Or 


following: 


. Existing administrative policies and their eHheCh on 


secondary school study of the classics. 


. The present provision for Latin instruction. 
. The recent and present enrolment and record of Latin 


pupils. 


. The secondary course of study in its present general 


arrangement and varying adaptations in relation to 
the study of Latin. 


. The all-important question of the spirit and method 


of the teaching. Early development of the pupil’s 
ready use of the language and of reading power. In- 
troduction to Latin through English. 


. The better training of classical teachers and prac- 


ticable agencies for securing the same. 


. Arrangement of the Latin courses of study to secure 


a better adaptation of content and method to the age 
and ability of the pupil. 


. The relation of the completed school course in Latin 


to college entrance requirements. 


. Consideration of the place and value of vocational 


10. 


Aili: 


12. 


13. 


BRIEF HISTORY 3 


Latin, use of translations and of the newer helps, such 
as Latin phrase-books, songs and plays, charts, pic- 
tures of domestic and public life, ancient coins, in- 
scriptions, works of art and other illustrative ma- 
terial. 

The relation of Latin to other secondary school 
studies. 

The status of Greek by itself and in relation to Latin 
and other subjects. 

The new situation in secondary education. The move- 
ment for securing a longer secondary school course 
by beginning earlier, thus saving the present waste in 
the elementary schools. Great importance of this for 
solving the problem of the place of the classics in the 
schools. The Junior High School. Its advantages and 
defects in this connection. 

Consideration of identical or closely similar questions 
now emerging in Great Britain, France and Germany 
in view of the lessons taught by the World War. 


II. The method proposed is: 


Li 


2. 
3. 


5. 


Formulation of the plan of investigation by a general 
advisory committee, assisted by regional committees. 
Carrying out the plan of investigation by experts. 
Regular conferences of committees to consider re- 
ports of experts and for whatever other purpose de- 
liberation is needed. 


. Preparation by the general advisory committee of a 


complete report embodying the results of the investi- 
gation. 
Publication and distribution of this report. 


In February, 1921, the General Education Board accepted 
the plan and made an appropriation for the expense of its 
prosecution. Additional appropriations were also subsequent- 


4 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


ly made. In March, 1921, the Special Committee elected the 

following Advisory Committee of fifteen members to have 

charge of the investigation: 

Andrew F. West, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J., 
Chairman 

M. Julia Bentley, Hughes High School, Cincinnati, Ohio 

A. L. Bondurant, University of Mississippi, University, Miss. 

W. L. Carr, formerly of Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio; now 
of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 

Roy C. Flickinger, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. 

Mason D. Gray, East High School, Rochester, N.Y. 

Richard M. Gummere, William Penn Charter School, Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

Gonzalez Lodge, Teachers College, Columbia Peiciae 
New York City 

W. V. McDuffee, Central High School, Springfield, Mass. 

F. J. Miller, University of Chicago, Chicago, II. 

‘Henry Pennypacker, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 

Frances E. Sabin, formerly of the University of Wisconsin, 
Madison, Wis.; now of Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
versity, New York City 

Julius Sachs, New York City 

A. 'T. Walker, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan. 

W. R. Webb, Jr., Webb School, Bell Buckle, Tenn. 
The following were chosen to serve as the Special Investi- 

gating Committee: 

Andrew F. West, Princeton, N.J., Chairman 

W. L. Carr, Oberlin, Ohio 

Mason D. Gray, Rochester, N.Y. 

W. V. McDuffee, Springfield, Mass. 

A central office for the investigation was established in 

Princeton together with three other offices in Oberlin, Roches- 

ter and Springfield. 


BRIEF HISTORY 5 


The summer of 1921 was needed to complete organization 
of the eight Regional Committees. Their membership, con- 
sisting of fifty-five persons in all, is as follows: 

1. New England 
Alfred E. Stearns, Principal of Phillips Academy, Andover, 

Mass., Chairman 
W. V. McDuffee, Central High School, Springfield, Mass., 

Secretary 
Samuel E. Bassett, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. 
Ruth A. Finberg, Deerfield Academy, Deerfield, Mass. 

Paul Nixon, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine 
Margaret C. Waites,* Mount Holyoke College, South Had- 
ley, Mass. : 
2. Middle Atlantic States 
(New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, 

District of Columbia) 

Elmer E. Bogart, Principal of Morris High School, New 

York City, Chairman 
Jessie E. Allen, Girls’ High School, Philadelphia, Pa. 

S. Dwight Arms, State Department of Education, Albany, 

Nay: 

Charles H. Breed, East Providence, R.I. 
Mildred Dean, Central High School, Washington, D.C. 
Arthur W. Howes, Central High School, Philadelphia, Pa. 
George D. Kellogg, Union College, Schenectady, N.Y. 
Anna P. MacVay, Wadleigh High School, New York City 
Evan T. Sage, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

3. The South 
(All states south of the Ohio and Potomac and east of the 
Mississippi Rivers, not including Louisiana) 
R. G. Peoples, Battle Ground Academy, Franklin, Tenn., 

Chairman 
Olive B. Catlin, Girls’? High School, Louisville, Ky. 

1 Died March 15, 1923. 


G THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


George Howe, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 
N.C; 

Catherine Torrance, Agnes Scott College, Decatur, Ga. 

Carter Waiker, Woodberry Forest, Va. 

C. B. Wallace, University School, Nashville, Tenn. 

Julius Wright, Mobile, Ala. 

4, Central West 

(Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin) ~ 

Lillian Gay Berry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind., 
Chairman | 

Harriet Bouldin, High School, Springfield, Ill. 

Anna Claybaugh, Shortridge High School, Indianapolis, Ind, 

Kenneth Culbertson, Austin High School, Chicago, Il. 

Benjamin L. D’Ooge, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. 

Harry F. Scott, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio 

Leta Wilson, High School, Madison, Wis. 

5. Southwest 

(Louisiana, ‘Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Ari- 
Zona ) | 

William James Battle, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, 
Chairman 

C. A. Ives, State High School Inspector, Baton Rouge, La. 

Lourania Miller, Forest Avenue High School, Dallas, Texas 

W. J. Moyes, South End Junior High School, Houston, 
‘Texas 

G. A. Simmons, Hendrix College, Conway, Ark. 

Ruby Terrill, Kast Texas State Normal College, Commerce, 
‘Texas 

Maude 'T. Lourey, Central High School, Tulsa, Okla. 

6. Northwest 

(Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota, North Da- 
kota, South Dakota) 

B. L. Ullman, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 
Chairman 


BRIEF HISTORY 7 


T.. Jennie Green, State Teachers College, Kirksville, Mo. 

W. L. Holtz, Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kan. 
Jessie B. Jury, Lincoln High School, Lincoln, Neb. 

Kdgar A. Menk, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, 

ND: 

D. S. White, formerly of Central High School, Minneapolis, 

Minn., now of High School, Ann Arbor, Mich. 

Nellie E. Wilson, North High School, Des Moines, Iowa. 

7. The Rockies 
(Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Nevada) 
Milo G. Derham, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo., 

Chairman — 

Charles C. Mierow, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, 

Colo., Secretary 
Harold L. Axtell, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 
Ralph S. Pitts, East Side High School, Denver, Colo. 

Alice E. Rowe, Salt Lake City, Utah 
8. Pacific Coast 
(California, Oregon, Washington) 
Clinton C. Conrad, University High School, Oakland, Cal., 

Chairman 

Clara Edith Bailey, Technical High School, Oakland, Cal. 
S. F. Dunn, University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore. 
Jefferson Elmore, Leland Stanford University, Cal. 
Arthur P. McKinlay, University of California, Southern 

Branch, Los Angeles, Cal. 

Mrs. E. L. Maddox, Sacramento, Cal. 
Francis O. Mower, Oakland, Cal. 

These are the classical committees, with seventy members in 
all, which have codperated in the investigation. The follow- 
ing meetings have been held: 

I. Preliminary Conferences: 

1. Special Committee of the American Classical League, 
New York City, January 8, 1921, 


8 


2. 


THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Special Committee of the American Classical EBRNs 
New York City, March 12, 1921. 


II. Meetings of the Advisory Committee: 


Il. 


LY. 


ifs 
2. 


6. 


New York City, April 9, 1921. 
Philadelphia, Pa., July 6, 1921. (Chairmen of Re- 
gional Committees included.) 


. Boston, Mass., July 1, 1922. (Chairmen of Regional 


Committees included.) 


. New York City, May 19, 1923. 
. Ann Arbor, Mich., June 29, 1923. (Chairmen of Re- 


gional Committees included.) 
New York City, April 14, 15 and 16, 1924. (Chair- 


men of Regional Committees included.) 


Meetings of the Regional Committees :* 


1. 


6. 


ie 


Regional Committees of the Central West and of the 
Northwest, Chicago, Ill., November 26, 1921. 


. Regional Committees of New England and of the Mid- 


dle Atlantic States, New York City, January 7, 1922. 


. Regional Committee of the Rockies, Denver, Colo., 


February 4, 1922. 


. Regional Committee of the Pacific Coast, Berkeley, 


Cal., February 18, 1922. 


. Regional Committee of the Southwest, Dallas, Texas, 


March 4, 1922. 

Regional Committee of the South, Atlanta, Ga., April 
29, 1922. 

Regional Committee of the Pacific Coast, San Fran- 
cisco, Cal., July 5, 1923. 


Meetings of the Special Investigating Committee (some- 
times occupying two or three days) : 


tA 
2. 


Preceding each meeting of the Advisory Committee. 
Preceding the joint meeting of the Regional Com- 


2 One or more members of the Special Investigating Committee have been 
present at each meeting of a Regional Committee. 


BRIEF HISTORY 9 


mittees of the Central West and of the Northwest and 
the joint meeting of the Regional Committees of New 
England and of the Middle Atlantic States. 
3. Three other meetings at Princeton, N.J., and Roches- 
ter, N.Y. 
V. Mention should also be made of many occasions on 
which the character and: progress of the investigation 
were explained by members of the Advisory, Regional 
or Special Investigating Committees at meetings of local, 
state or regional classical associations. 

In addition, the collaboration and criticism of forty-eight 
leading professors of education and psychology has been se- 
cured and has proved very valuable. These professors have 
given their time and effort freely and have helped to clarify 
the investigation and to divest it of any bias that might pos- 
sibly be attributed to it in case it were conducted solely by 
teachers of the classics. The following nineteen have been our 
principal collaborators: 

Thomas H. Briggs, Professor of Secondary Education, 
Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City 
Leo J. Brueckner, Associate Professor of Education, Univer- 
sity of Minnesota, and Director of Tests and Measure- 

ments of Minneapolis, Minn. 

B. R. Buckingham, Professor of Education and Director of 
the Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio State Univer- 
sity, Columbus, Ohio 

W. W. Charters, Professor of Education and Director of 
Research Bureau, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, 
Pa. 

Sturgis B. Davis, Head of the Department of Educational 
Administration, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

V. A. C. Henmon, Professor of Education and Director of 
the School of Education, University of Wisconsin, Madi- 
son, Wis. 


10 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Milo B. Hillegas, Professor of Education, Teachers College, 
Columbia University, New York City 

Arthur J. Jones, Professor of Secondary Education, Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Thomas J. Kirby, Professor of Education, State University 
of Iowa, Iowa City, lowa 

S. A. Leonard, Professor of the Teaching of English, Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 

William A. McCall, Associate Professor of Education, ‘Teach- 
ers College, Columbia University, New York City 

M. V. O’Shea, Professor of ‘Education, University of Wis- 
consin, Madison, Wis. 

Luella W. Pressey, Instructor in Psychology, Ohio State 
University, Columbus, Ohio 

Sidney L. Pressey, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Ohio 
State University, Columbus, Ohio 

H. Lester Smith, Dean of the School of Education and Di- 
rector of the Bureau of Co6dperative Research, Indiana 
University, Bloomington, Ind. 

P. R. Stevenson, Research Associate of the Bureau of Edu- 
cational Research, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 

Edward L. Thorndike, Professor of Educational Psychology 
and Director of the Institute of Educational Research, 
Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City 

W. L. Uhl, Associate Professor of Education, University of 
Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 

Clifford Woody, Professor of Education and Director of the 
Bureau of Educational Reference and Research, Univer- 
sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 

From time to time, as occasion arose, valuable advice and 
criticism on various parts of the investigation were also re- 
ceived from the following twenty-nine other professors of 


education and psychology: 


BRIEF HISTORY 11 


William C. Bagley, Professor of Education, ‘Teachers Col- 
lege, Columbia University, New York City 

W. V. Bingham, Professor of Psychology, Psychological Di- 
vision, Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Franklin Bobbitt, Professor of Secondary Education, Uni- 
versity of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. 

Carl Brigham, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Princeton 
University, Princeton, N.J. 

J. C. Chapman, Professor of MKducation, Yale University, 
New Haven, Conn. 

H. S. Childs, Professor of Secondary Education, Indiana 
University, Bloomington, Ind. 

S. S. Colvin,* Professor of Education, Teachers College, Col- 
umbia University, New York City 

Calvin O. Davis, Professor of Secondary Education, Univer- 
sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 

I. N. Freeman, Professor of Education, University of Chi- 
cago, Chicago, Ill. . 

S.C. Garrison, Professor of Educational Psychology, George 
Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. 

James M. Glass, State Director of Junior High Schools, De- 
partment of Education, Harrisburg, Pa. 

Frank P. Graves, State Commissioner of Education for New 
York, Albany, N.Y. 

Melvin E. Haggerty, Dean of the Department of Education, 
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. 

Ernest Horn, Professor of Education, State University of 
Towa, Iowa City, lowa 

Alexander J. Inglis,* Professor of Education, Harvard Uni- 
versity, Cambridge, Mass. 

Charles H. Judd, Professor of Education and Director of the 


3 Died July 15, 1923. 
4 Died April 12, 1924, 


12 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. 

Truman L. Kelly, Professor of Education, Leland Stanford 
University, Cal. 

Leroy A. King, Assistant Professor of Educational Admin- 
istration, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. 
F. B. Knight, Professor of Education, State University of 

Iowa, Iowa City, lowa 

Leonard V. Koos, Professor of Secondary Education, Uni- 
versity of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. 

E. A. Miller, Professor of Education, Oberlin College, Ober- 
lin, Ohio 

Louis A. Pechstein, Professor of Education, University of 
Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 

S. J. Phelps, Professor of School Administration, George 
Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. 

R. H. Stetson, Professor of Psychology, Oberlin College, 
Oberlin, Ohio 

L. L. Thurstone, Professor of Psychology, Carnegie Institute 
of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Marion Rex Trabue, Professor of Education, University of 
North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C. 

Harlan Updegraff, formerly Professor of Educational Ad- 
ministration, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 
Pa., now President of Cornell College, Mount Vernon, Iowa 

Guy M. Whipple, Professor of Experimental Education, 
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 

A. Duncan Yocum, Professor of Educational Theory and 
Practice, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. 
Another invaluable codperating agency is the United 

States Bureau of Education, which under the superinten- 

dency of Hon. John J. Tigert, United States Commissioner 

of Education, has made an elaborate statistical inquiry into 
the status of the classical languages since the World War in 
all American secondary schools and has also obtained statis- 


BRIEF HISTORY 13 


tics showing the status of the modern languages for the same 
period. The facts are now made available for the first time, 
and in authoritative form. The State Department of Edu- 
cation for New York placed its records at our disposal 
through the authorization of Commissioner Frank P. Graves 
and thus made possible the extensive study conducted by 
S. Dwight Arms, Elmer E. Bogart and J. Cayce Morrison. 
The College Entrance Examination Board also placed its 
records at our disposal and greatly facilitated our work. 
Mention should likewise be made of important help given by 
the Classical Association of New England and by other clas- 
sical societies. Through the agency of the eight Regional 
Committees, and by special personal inquiry also, it has been 
our great good fortune to secure the voluntary unremuner- 
ated help of 8,595 teachers, mostly teachers of the classics, 
together with many teachers of English, French and history, 
who have given much. time to marking, checking and account- 
ing for the experimental work in all parts of the country. 
Such a free-will offering is unmatched in the history of any 
educational inquiry thus far conducted in our land. The in- 
vestigation has been carried on throughout the two academic 
years 1921-1922 and 1922-1923 in every State in the Union. 
A great deal of travelling has been necessary. About a year 
and a half more has been taken in preparing for the investi- 
gation and in collecting and summarizing its results. The 
total number of secondary schools enlisted in the investiga- 
tion is 1,313° and the total number of pupils tested is ap- 
proximately 150,000. The total number of individual tests 
given is approximately 750,000. 

With the time and money available it was not possible to 
investigate every matter proposed in the comprehensive pro- 
5 If the 990 schools included in the special New York State survey are 


included, the grand total of schools, after deducting New York schools 
already included in the total of 1,313, will exceed 2,000. 


14 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


gramme which was adopted at the start, nor to give any large ~ 
attention to Greek. Nor was it necessary to do so. The rea- | 


sons will be explained later. But the most important facts 
needing investigation have been studied and the plan of pro- 
cedure has been adhered to rigorously; namely, first to find 
the facts, then to make an analysis and impartial criticism of 
the facts, and finally to prepare a progressive constructive 
programme for the teaching of the classics in our secondary 
schools. It is clear to us that there are human values involved 
in learning the classics which are not measurable in mechan- 
ical terms and that there are also certain processes and re- 


sults which can be so measured with fairly close accuracy. 


We have endeavored to test these processes and results by 
definite scientific experiment. ‘he many tests and controlled 
experiments employed for this purpose have been devised with 
the utmost care on the basis of the most recent improved 
methods of measurement. The statistical and historical studies 
and the collections of expert opinion have been made with 
equal care. 

The results of the investigation, including our specific 
recommendations, are detailed and grouped in their natural 
order in the successive chapters of this volume and our gen- 


eral conclusions are stated in the closing chapter. The var- 


ious tests, experiments, projects, statistical and historical — 


studies and collections of expert opinion which constitute the 
material on which this Report is based will be presented more 
fully in five additional volumes, which will be prepared for 
publication as rapidly as is practicable. The six Parts of the 
Report are as follows: 

Part I. General Report. 


Part II. Documentary Evidence for the General Report. 


Part III. The Classics in England, France and Germany. | 


Part IV. English Word-Count and Latin Word-List. 


BRIEF HISTORY 15 


Part V. Latin Word-Count. A special lexicon based on 
frequency of use in school and college Latin. 
Part VI. Derivative Lexicon, Latin and Greek. Based on 
a word-count of the entire English language as 
recorded in the Oxford New English Diction- 
ary. 
Arrangements for publishing and distributing Part I and 
Part III have already been made. In case it is found imprac- 
ticable, because of the large mass of documents, to secure the 
publication of Part II, the documents will be kept for in- 
spection. 


CHAPTER II 


“ 


STATISTICAL STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK 
Section 1. Introduction 


Tuis chapter contains statistical information from the 
secondary schools and colleges of the country. The codperat- 
ing agencies which have made possible the compilation of the 
facts herein presented are the United States Bureau of Edu- 
cation, the principals and Latin teachers of over 10,000 sec- 
ondary schools, the registrars or other officials of practically 
every college in the country, all the state superintendents of 
public instruction and many other persons. 

The information gathered from the sources mentioned 
above is given in three sections, followed by tables (in Ap- 
pendix A) showing certain facts in detail. The more im- 
portant points may be summarized as follows: 

1. The total enrolment in Latin in the secondary schools of 
the country for the year 1923-1924 is estimated by the 
United States Bureau of Education at 940,000, slightly in 
excess of the combined enrolment in all other foreign lan- 
guages. It is approximately 27.5% of the total enrolment 
of pupils in all secondary schools, including the seventh 
and eighth grades of junior high schools, or 30% if these 
grades are not included. The enrolment in Greek is only 
about 11,000, but shows some signs of increase. In the pub- 
lic high schools nearly one-half of the Latin enrolment is 
in the ninth grade or below, while only one-fifteenth is in 
the twelfth grade. About one-half of this decrease is due to 
the corresponding decrease in total enrolment.’ About 83% 


1This makes no allowance for the appreciable number of pupils who 
begin Latin in the second year or later. 


EE  ———— 


STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK 17 


of the 20,500 secondary schools of the country offer in- 
struction in one or more foreign languages. Of this num- 
ber 94% offer Latin, a slightly larger percentage than in 
the case of all other foreign languages combined. The 
number offering four years of Latin is more than double 
the number offering three years of French, four years be- 
ing the ordinary maximum time given to Latin and three 
years the ordinary maximum time given to French. 

2. There are approximately 22,500 teachers of Latin in the 
secondary schools of the country. More than 25% of these 
teachers have had less than eight years of schooling be- 
yond the elementary grades, almost exactly 25% have not 
studied Latin beyond the secondary-school stage and only 
slightly over 25% have studied Greek,—half of this num- 
ber not beyond the secondary-school stage. 

3. The Latin enrolment in the colleges of the country in 
1923-1924 was approximately 40,000 and the Greek en- 
rolment about 16,000. There are many signs in the col- 
leges of an increasing interest in both Latin and Greek. Re- 
cent extensive studies show that there is a strong voluntary 
tendency to offer Latin for college entrance and that al- 
though “‘the largest specific (foreign) language require- 
ment is in Latin,” the average offerings of Latin presented 
by candidates for college entrance amount to “more than 
three times the prescription.’” 

4. Of the 609 colleges in the United States listed by the 
United States Bureau of Education in 1922-1923, 234 of- 
fer courses in beginning Latin, 470 in beginning Greek, 
237 give teacher-training courses in Latin and 214 require 
two to four years of Latin for admission to the A.B. course. 

5. Apparently only five states have a definite requirement 
that one must have studied Latin (or Greek) in college in 


2Report of Clyde Furst, Association of American Colleges, 111 Fifth 
Avenue, New York. Vol. X, No. 3 (Bulletin of May, 1924), pp. 200, 201. 


18 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


order to teach the subject in the public high schools of the 
state, and only one state requires any previous teachers’ 
training work in the language. 

6. Thirty-nine of the forty-eight state superintendents of 
public instruction state that their attitude toward Latin 
is sympathetic or distinctly friendly. Seven express them-— 


selves as neutral and two as unsympathetic or distinctly © 
unfriendly. As regards Greek, eight are sympathetic or — 
distinctly friendly, twenty-four are neutral and sixteen are 
unsympathetic or distinctly unfriendly. 


Section 2. Secondary Schools 


1. Enrolment in Latin, Greek and modern languages in 1925- 

1924. 

Table I, given in Appendix A at the end of this book,’ gives 
the estimated enrolment in foreign languages in all public 
and private secondary schools of the continental United 
States in 1923-1924. The formulas used in arriving at these 
estimates were worked out by the United States Bureau of 
Kducation. The exact estimates thus obtained have been used 
for Latin, Greek and French, but have been somewhat in- 
creased for German and decreased for Spanish, as there is 
evidence to show that these corrections should be made. It is 
probable also that the figures for Latin should be at least 
slightly larger, but in the absence of definite proof they have 
been left unchanged. 

It will be noticed that the Latin enrolment is not only much 
larger than has been commonly thought to be the case, but is 
also a little larger than the combined enrolment in all other 
foreign languages. On the other hand the Greek enrolment, 
especially in the public high schools, is so small as to cause 
deep concern to all friends of classical education. 


8Tables I-XIII, mentioned in Sections 1 and 2 of this chapter, are put 
together in Appendix A at the end of this book, 


STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK 19 


Tables II and III show the actual foreign language enrol- 
ment by states in 1921-1922 in approximately 76% of the 
secondary schools of the country, not including pupils in the 
seventh and eighth grades of the junior high schools. These 
tables, together with an estimate of the schools not reporting 
and of the changes in enrolment between 1921-1922 and 1928- 
1924, served as the basis for the formulas used in computing 
the figures in Table I. In Tables II and III also the Latin en- 
rolment is greater than in the other foreign languages com- 
bined. 

Table IV gives the facts of Tables II and III in terms 
of percentage of total enrolment. 

Table V gives the percentage of pupils enrolled in Latin 
in the various groups of schools in 1921-1922. 

‘Table VI shows the gain or loss by percentages in foreign- 
language enrolment in 1921-1922 (on the basis of Tables I 
and III) as compared with 1914-1915, the last time such 
general statistics were compiled by the United States Bureau 
of Education. 

The decreased percentage in Latin enrolment as compared 
with the total enrolment in the public high schools during 
these seven years was to be expected. This decreased per- 
centage, which is only slightly larger than the decreased per- 
centage in the combined modern foreign languages, is ac- 
counted for by the enormous increase in the total enrolment 
of these schools. This has resulted in the presence in our 
public high schools of hosts of students who even ten years 
ago would not have thought of a secondary education. The 
great majority of these students do not care for the study of 
foreign languages, classical or modern, and very many of 
them are in schools of the agricultural, technical or commer- 
cial type, where Latin is not often taught. 

Tables IIJ-VI do not include enrolment below the ninth 
grade. 


20 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


2. Distribution of foreign languages by years in 1923-1924. 

Tables VII and VIII show the estimated distribution by 
grades of the enrolment as given in Table I. These estimates 
are based upon the returns to a special questionnaire sent 
out by the United States Bureau of Education. The returns 
to the questionnaire gave the exact distribution figures for 
about two-thirds of the schools included in these tables. The 
small enrolment of postgraduates is disregarded. 

The striking feature in these tables is the decrease in 
Latin enrolment in the third and fourth years of the public 
high schools. It will be noticed that about one-half of this 
decrease is accounted for by the corresponding decrease in 
total enrolment in these years. This situation, however, is not 
satisfactory, especially in view of the character of the third 
and fourth years in Latin and of the fact that pupils like 
Vergil better than any other author read in the secondary 
course.* The decrease in Latin enrolment in the third and 
fourth years of the private schools is much smaller. 

3. Number of schools offering work in the various foreign 
languages in 1922-1923 and the amount of Latin offered 
in these schools. 

There are approximately 20,500 secondary schools in the 
United States,—18,000 public and 2,500 private. About 
837%, or 17,000, offer work in one or more foreign languages, 

Table IX shows the situation in 10,177 of these 17,000 
schools in 1922-1923 as to the number of schools offering 
work in the various languages. The table is based upon the 
returns to the special questionnaire already mentioned, which 
was sent out by the United States Bureau of Education. In 
this table Latin is subdivided so as to show the number of 
4It is to be remembered that some pupils who are taking Latin in the 
third and fourth years are not taking third- and fourth-year Latin, be- 
cause they do not begin the subject until the second year or later. There 


are other pupils who begin Latin in the junior high school and continue it 
for three years or longer. 


STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK 21 


schools offering it for one year, two years, three years and 
four years or more. For purposes of comparison French, the 
other leading foreign language, is also subdivided to the ex- 
tent of showing how many schools offer three years or more. 

Table X gives the facts of Table IX on a basis of percent- 
age, separating the schools into groups. These percentages 
will undoubtedly hold good approximately, within their re- 
spective groups, for the 17,000 schools referred to above. 

The table is particularly interesting in view of the fact 
that in some quarters one of the chief arguments against the 
requirement of Latin (especially four years of it) for en- 
trance to the A.B. course is that such requirement keeps out 
many students who are not able to get Latin in their second- 
ary schools. The table shows not merely that the percentage 
of schools offering Latin is greater than the percentage of 
schools offering any or all other foreign languages—as 
would be expected from Tables J-I1I—but that the percent- 
age of schools offering four years of Latin is double the per- 
centage of schools offering three years of French, the next 
leading foreign language in enrolment. 

This table, in connection with Table I, is also of interest 
to prospective teachers. The two tables clearly show the en- 
tire lack of foundation for the advice frequently given to such 
students not to specialize in Latin on the ground that there is 
no strong demand for Latin teachers. 

The fact that Spanish is offered in thirty times as many 
public high schools as offer Greek is another point of inter- 
est, especially in view of the common argument against 
Greek that under present-day conditions time ought not to 
be given to this study because of the large provision which 
should be made for the more “practical”? subjects. The whole 
Greek-German-Spanish situation, as revealed by this table, 
offers food for serious thought on the part of those who are in 
educational administrative positions. 


22 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


4, Educational qualifications of Latin teachers. 

It is estimated that there are approximately 22,500 teach- 
ers of Latin in the secondary schools of the country. This 
estimate, made by the Bureau of Education for this investi- 
gation, gives for the first time a reliable statement of the 
approximate total number of Latin teachers in the country. 
The number is much larger than has been generally sup- 
posed, but it is to be remembered that many teachers of 
Latin, perhaps half of them, teach one or more other subjects 
in conection with Latin. 

Table XI gives certain information as to the educational 
qualification of 10,439 of these teachers—about 46% of the 
total number. The table is based upon returns to the special 
questionnaire already referred to. It is believed that the per- 
centages there given will hold good approximately for the en- 
tire 22,500. 

So far as general education and the number of years spent 
in the study of Latin before beginning to teach Latin are con- 
cerned, it will be seen that conditions are not particularly un- 
satisfactory except in public high schools in places with a 
population of under 2,500, where nearly 40% of the Latin 
teachers have never gone beyond the secondary-school stage 
in their own study of the language and where almost as many 
are not college graduates. These small schools include over 
three-fourths of the public high schools of the country and 
about three-eighths of the public high school Latin enrolment, 
—a fact, incidentally, which complicates the problems of this 
investigation. Furthermore, in view of known tendencies 
operating in the selection of teachers in small communities 
there is reason to believe that this group of small high schools 
furnishes considerably more than its proportionate number 
of future teachers. 

In regard to the number of Latin teachers who have studied 
Greek the situation is bad in all the groups of schools and has 


STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK 23 


probably been getting worse rather than better during the 
past few years. Conditions are also distinctly bad in the 
matter of definite training in Latin for prospective teachers 
of Latin, although in this respect there has been an appre- 
ciable improvement during the last few years. 

It is evident that this matter of the qualifications of teach- 
ers lies at the very foundation of the main question under dis- 
cussion in this report, namely, how to improve the teaching 
of Latin and Greek. The causes of the weaknesses which exist 
are complex, though often obvious. The remedies should be 
studied with great care and applied with skill and patience; 
and it is not to be forgotten that some of the most necessary 


of these remedies are frequently of an economic nature. 


Section 3. Colleges 


1. Enrolment in Latin, Greek and modern languages. 

Table XII shows by states the enrolment for 1922-1923 
in Latin, Greek and the leading modern languages in 539 of 
_ the 609 colleges in the continental United States listed in the 
educational directory of the Bureau of Education for 1922- 
1923, as reported by these colleges to the investigating com- 
mittee. Many of the colleges report an increasing interest in 
the two classical languages; several state that these lan- 
guages are being introduced into the course of study for the 
first time and others that they are being reintroduced after 
an absence of some years. 

On the basis of this table, after making allowance for the 
colleges not reporting, the number of Latin students in the 
colleges of the country in 1923-1924 is estimated at ap- 
preciably over 40,000, 12,500 of these being found in courses 
of secondary grade, and the number of Greek students at more 
than 16,000, 5,500 of these being found in courses of second- 
ary grade. These figures do not include the enrolment in high 


school or preparatory departments of colleges. 


Q4 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


As in the case of the secondary schools, the Greek-German- 
Spanish situation as revealed in Table XII is one of peculiar 
interest. , 

2. Certain other facts as to the position of Latin and Greek 
in the colleges. 

Table XIII contains reports from all the 609 colleges of 
the country, showing the number which offer courses in be- 
ginning Latin or beginning Greek, and training courses in 
Latin or Greek for prospective teachers; also the number 
which require Latin for admission to the A.B. course and the 
number which offer Latin or Greek courses in English. This 
last item means the study of Latin or Greek literature in 
translation, or the study of those associated facts which are 
usually obtained, in part at least, from a study of these lan- 
guages in the original. It does not include such subjects as 
Greek or Roman history, archaeology and the fine arts. The 
enrolment in these Latin-English and Greek-English courses 
is not included in Table XII. 

While no comparative figures are available, there is reason 
to believe that there has been in recent years a marked in- 
crease in the effort to give those who enter college without 
Latin or Greek an opportunity to study these languages, or 
at least to get indirectly some knowledge of the literatures 
and civilizations they represent. 


Section 4. State Departments of Education 


The following paragraphs contain the summary of replies 
to a questionnaire sent out to the 48 state superintendents of 
public instruction. Replies were received from all the states. 

To the question “What regulation, if any, has your de- 
partment. concerning the special preparation of Latin and 
Greek teachers?”, 40 replied “none”; 2 stated that the mat- 
ter is under the control of the state university, and 5 that the 
subjects must have been studied in college. Only one state 


STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK 25 


has a definite requirement that in order to teach Latin in the 
secondary schools of the state the applicant must have taken 
teacher-training work in Latin in college. 

In reply to a question as to facilities for the training of 
Latin and Greek teachers in the state university, state normal 
schools or other institutions, 38 answers ranged from ‘‘ade- 
quate” to “excellent”; 6 answered ‘‘some” and 4 answered 
“none.” | 

In reply to a question as to the attitude of the state de- 
partment of education toward the study of Latin and Greek 
in the secondary schools of the state, the answers were as 


follows: 
LATIN GREEK 
Distinctly friendly Q4 4 
Sympathetic 15 4 
Neutral qi 24 
Unsympathetic ft 8 
Distinctly unfriendly 1 8 


The 39 state superintendents rated as distinctly friendly 
or sympathetic toward Latin represent states with a popu- 
lation of approximately 85,000,000, the 7 rated as neutral 
represent states with a population of approximately 11,000,- 
000, and the 2 rated as unsympathetic or distinctly unfriend- 
ly represent states with a population of approximately 
9,000,000. 

The 8 state superintendents rated as distinctly friendly or 
sympathetic toward Greek represent states with a population 
of approximately $2,000,000, the 24 rated as neutral represent 
states with a population of approximately 44,000,000, and 
the 16 rated as unsympathetic or distinctly unfriendly rep- 
resent states with a population of approximately 29,000,000. 

Twenty-eight state superintendents state that the atti- 


26 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


tude of the department has no effect on the enrolment in these 
subjects, while 20 state that so far as Latin is concerned the 
departmeut’s attitude does have an appreciable effect—ap- 
parently in 15 cases to increase and in 5 cases to decrease the 
enrolment. 

The following are some of the more significant replies to a 
question as to the reasons for the attitude of the department : 

‘“, . 1s in the main an agricultural state and needs devel- 
opment. The traditional and aristocratic type of education 
we used to have has been a serious obstacle to our develop- 
ment. Although I have been a Latin specialist, I cannot be 
reasonable and at the same time try to promote in this state 
a type of education which does not fit 95% of our communi- 
ties and seems to have little value for 90% of our young 
people.” 

“T believe that for most students some study of Latin can 
be made of great value. The first condition would be teachers 
who have the intelligence to break away from some of the 
deadly, dull and orthodox methods. In view of the fact that 
one-third of all the pupils in this state who study Latin at all 
study it for two years only, I have a very definite and strong 
opinion that we ought to make what might be described as 
revolutionary modifications in the work which we call upon 
these young people to do in these two years in the study of 
Latin.” 

‘TY have mourned that the publicity given Charles Francis 
Adams’ Phi Beta Kappa address attacking the study of 
Greek was never given to his retraction of fifteen years later. 
I consider it a real misfortune that so few young people these 
days are studying Greek.” 

“The department has prescribed Latin as the only for- 
eign language in high schools of three teachers or fewer, be- 
cause it is the best single foreign language for high-school 
pupils to study.” 


STATUS OF LATIN AND GREEK 27 


“We believe that in the hands of competent teachers and 
with well organized material Latin offers very much of value 
to the high-school student in connection with his English 
training and general culture.” 

‘“‘Where Latin is taught so as to mean something in educa- 
tion of the present-day American boys and girls, I am ‘dis- 
tinctly friendly’; where it is being done to death by mediocre 
people or by people of narrow view, or those who teach it for 
traditional reasons or for formal discipline, I would rather 
see something substituted that means helpfulness in living 
during the next fifty years.” 

“We believe in Latin and Greek as integral parts of a cul- 
tural course in liberal arts.” 

“My slogan with reference to Latin is: ‘Offer it to every- 
one; require it of no one.’ ” 

“The department is inclined to hold the view that justifica- 
tion for the large proportion of high-school pupils at present 
studying foreign languages cannot be made on the basis of 
direct and utilitarian values, except for a very select few. 
The comfort to be found in the transfer values and the indi- 
rect usefulness is somewhat meagre. When weighed against 
other subjects which may be placed in the curriculum, the 
claims of foreign languages seem relatively weak in the light 
of fundamental objectives.” 

“The Commissioner holds that the high school should offer 
an opportunity for youth to pursue the classical studies, and 
that it is a serious error to exclude Latin and Greek and to 
close to youth the entrance to the studies the influence of 
which is essentially paramount in literature. He is not un- 
friendly to the modern development of science and art depart- 
ments, nor to vocational courses, but on the other hand he 
has not forgotten the significant contributions made to edu- 
cation by the classical scholarship of all ages.” 

“The department considers Latin of very great importance 


28 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


as a basis for sound scholarship, especially for such students 
as are to pursue a college course. The peculiar values of con- 
tent and intellectual drill furnished by Latin (and Greek) are 
not to be found elsewhere.” 


CHAPTER Ul 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES IN THE TEACHING OF 


SECONDARY LATIN 


Section 1. Introduction 


In the preceding chapter it was shown that there were in 
1923-1924 approximately 940,000 pupils studying Latin in 
the secondary schools of the United States. It is a slightly 
larger number than the total number studying any or all other 
foreign languages. A grave responsibility rests upon the 
teachers of any subject which takes the time and energy of so 
large a number of pupils. It rests in even greater measure 
upon those charged with the organization and administration 
of courses of study in that subject.* 

The classical investigation was undertaken for the purpose 
of ascertaining definitely the present status of Latin and 
Greek and of preparing a constructive programme of recom- 
mendations for improving the teaching of Latin and Greek 
in the secondary schools of the United States.’ In formulat- 
ing our plans it has been assumed that Latin will continue to 
be taught as an instrument in the general education of a very 
large number of boys and girls in the secondary schools, that 
the results being secured in the teaching of Latin are not all 
they should be and that these results could be improved. There 
has been little criticism or complaint regarding the teaching 
of Greek and consequently little need for an examination of 
that subject. Evidently the first thing to do was to ascertain 
1See Analysis of the General Questionnaire, Part II, Chapter III, Sec- 
tion 2. 


2“The Classical Survey: A Preliminary Report,” The Classical Journal, 
XVII (October, 1921), p. 16. 


30 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


the facts, good and bad, internal and external, by every means 
available and then to make recommendations on the basis of 
these findings.*® 

In organizing a course of study in Latin, or in any other 
subject, the aims or objectives of the course should first be 
clearly ascertained and then the content and method should 
be so chosen as to provide conditions most favorable for full 
attainment of the objectives determined upon as valid.* 

The present chapter is devoted mainly to the fundamental 
question of aims or objectives, and the two succeeding chap- 
ters discuss chiefly the question of content and method. While 
the problems of objectives, content and method are treated 
for convenience in separate chapters, these problems are not 
independent of one another. They are clearly interdependent, 
and evidences of their close interrelation will appear in the 
treatment of almost every topic. | 

The encouraging tendency to begin the secondary per- 
iod of education two years earlier through the establish- 
ment of junior high schools or of six-year secondary schools 
seems likely to become general. This may open the way for 
the desirable earlier introduction of Latin, with a resultant 
six-year course in Latin or in some cases a five-year course. 
However, a glance at the statistics of enrolment and distribu- 
tion in Chapter IT shows that at the present time the study of 
Latin in most secondary schools begins in the first year of a 
four-year course and continues for a maximum of four years. 
Accordingly in this discussion the present four-year Latin 
course is taken as the basis and the five-year and six-year 
courses are treated as modified extensions of the four-year 
course, 

The problem of determining the objectives of the teaching 
8“The Classical Investigation: The Work of the First Two Years,” The 
Classical Journal, XVIII (June, 1923), p. 548. 


4“The Classical Survey: A Preliminary Report,” The Classical Journal, 
XVII (October, 1921), pp. 16-27. 





a) 
| ; 
; 
1 
s 
F 
t 
. 
‘ 





AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 31 


of Latin in the secondary schools is complicated by the fact 
that, on the basis of the present distribution, out of every 
hundred pupils who study Latin in the first year of the four- 
year secondary schools, 69 study it for two years, 31 for 
three years and 14 for four years or longer. Thus Latin is a 
one-year course for 31 pupils, a two-year course for 38, a 
three-year course for 17, and a four-year course for 14, Fur- 
thermore, the relation existing between secondary Latin and 
college Latin for the country as a whole is indicated by the 
fact that of these 14 pupils completing the four-year Latin 
course in the secondary school scarcely 5 may be expected 
under present conditions to continue the study of Latin in 
college. i 

While the course should be so organized as to secure the 
full cumulative results for four-year pupils, it must be borne 
in mind that under present conditions 69% of all the pupils 
who begin Latin in the secondary schools study Latin for one 
or two years only, and that such pupils must secure their re- 
turns during that period, if at all. The work of each year, 
therefore, beginning with the first, should be so organized as 
to be worth while in itself,’ whether or not the pupil is to go 
further in the study of Latin. Moreover, we are convinced that 
a course so organized will furnish a better preparation for 
continuing the study beyond the first two years.°® It is also 
reasonable to expect that with fuller appreciation on the part 
of pupils of the values secured from the study of Latin and 
with better adaptation of the content of the course to the 
ability and interests of the pupils, a larger proportion of 
those who begin Latin will pursue the study throughout the 
secondary school and continue it in college.’ 
5See Analysis of General Questionnaire, Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. 
6 See Analysis of General Questionnaire, Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. 
7™W. L. Uhl, “How Much Time for Latin?”’, The Classical Journal, XIX 


(January, 1924), pp. 215-221, and “The Time Element in High Schools,” 
The School Review, XXXII (February, 1924), pp. 105-121. 


32 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


In discussing the objectives of the study of Latin it is 
necessary at the outset to emphasize the important distinc- 
tion between ultimate and immediate objectives. By ultimate 
objectives are meant those which involve educational values 
upon which the justification of Latin as an instrument in sec- 
ondary education must depend, namely, those abilities, knowl- 
edges, attitudes and habits which continue to function after 
the school study of Latin has ceased; for example, the ability 
to determine the meaning of an unfamiliar English word de- 
rived from Latin, the habit of sustained attention, or an ap- 
preciation of the influence of Roman civilization on the course 
of western civilization. By immediate objectives are meant 
those indispensable aims in which progressive achievement is 
necessary to ensure the attainment of the ultimate objectives, 
but which may cease to function after the school study of 
Latin has ceased; for example, the ability to conjugate a 
Latin verb or to translate a passage from Caesar.* 

The indispensable primary immediate objective in the 
study of Latin is progressive development of ability to read 
and understand Latin.*® Without this it is not to be expected 
that the ultimate objectives will be obtained. In the attain- 
ment of this primary immediate objective several secondary 
objectives are involved, such as the ability to pronounce 
Latin, sufficient knowledge of Latin vocabulary, syntax and 
forms, and the ability to translate Latin into English and 
English into Latin. What is meant precisely by reading Latin 
and what is the relation of the other immediate objectives to 
the development of this ability will be discussed in the chap- 
ters on content and method. 
8“The Classical Survey: A Preliminary Report,” The Classical Journal, 
XVII (October, 1921), pp. 18, 22. See also Hare, “An Evaluation of the | 
Objectives in Latin,’ The Classical Journal, XTX (December, 1923), pp. | 
155-165. | 


9“The Classical Investigation: The Work of the First Two Years,” The | 
Classical Journal, XVIII (June, 1923), pp. 561, 567, | 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 33 

Except where the contrary is specified, it should be under- 

stood that any objective under discussion in the present 

chapter is being analyzed for the purpose of determining its 

validity as an ultimate objective, capable of functioning out- 

side the Latin class-room and after the school study of Latin 
has ceased. 


Section 2. Procedure in Determining the Validity of 
Ultimate Objectives 


As a first step in the determination of ultimate objectives 
valid for the secondary course in Latin, a tentative list*® de- 
rived from an examination of the literature of the subject was 
set up for examination. This list, somewhat modified during 
the progress of the investigation, is as follows: 

Instrumental and application objectives: 

1. Ability to read new Latin after the study of the language 

in school or college has ceased. 

2. Increased ability to understand Latin words, phrases, 

abbreviations and quotations occurring in English. 

8. Increased ability to understand the exact meaning of 
Knglish words derived directly or indirectly from Latin, 
and increased accuracy in their use. 

4. Increased ability to read English with correct under- 

standing. 


Or 


. Increased ability to speak and write correct and effective 
English through training in adequate translation. 

6. Increased ability to spell English words of Latin deriva- 
tion. 

7. Increased knowledge of the principles of English gram- 
mar, and a consequently increased ability to speak and 
write English grammatically correct. 

8. Increased ability to learn the technical and semi-tech- 


/10°The Classical Survey: A Preliminary Report,” The Classical Journal, 
XVII (October, 1921), pp. 22-25, 


34 


9. 


THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


nical terms of Latin origin employed in other school 
studies and in professions and vocations. 
Increased ability to learn other foreign languages. 


Disciplinary objectives : 


i 


4. 


The development of certain desirable habits and ideals 
which are subject to spread, such as habits of sustained 
attention, orderly procedure, overcoming obstacles, per- 
severance; ideals of achievement, accuracy and thor- 
oughness; and the cultivation of certain general atti- 
tudes, such as dissatisfaction with failure or with partial 


success. 


. The development of the habit of discovering identical 


elements in different situations and experiences, and of 


making true generalizations. 


. The development of correct habits of reflective thinking 


applicable to the mastery of other subjects of study and 
to the solution of analogous problems in daily life. 
Increased ability to make formal logical analyses, 


Cultural objectives: 


1. 


The development of an historical perspective and of a 
general cultural background through an _ increased 
knowledge of facts relating to the life, history, institu- 
tions, mythology and religion of the Romans; an in- 
creased appreciation of the influence of their civilization 
on the course of western civilization; and a broader un- 
derstanding of social and political problems of today. 


. Increased ability to understand and appreciate refer- 


ences and allusions to the mythology, traditions and his- 
tory of the Greeks and Romans. 


. The development of right attitudes toward social situa- 


tions. 


. A better acquaintance through the study of their writ- 


ings with some of the chief personal characteristics of 
the authors read. 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 35 


5. Development of an appreciation of the literary qualities 
of Latin authors read, and development of a capacity 
for such appreciation in the literatures of other lan- 
guages. 

6. A greater appreciation of the elements of literary tech- 
nique employed in prose and verse. 

7. Improvement in the literary quality of the pupil’s writ- 
ten English. 

8. An elementary knowledge of the general principles of 
language structure. 

These objectives are listed and discussed in three groups. 
It should not be inferred, however, that they are in actual 
practice so definitely separable as this classification might 
suggest. For example, an objective treated for convenience in 
the instrumental-application group may also have cultural 
aspects. In practice they are found to be blended. 

It is not implied that the list given above exhausts all the 
possible values to be secured from the study of Latin. We 
believe, however, that it is amply sufficient to provide a basis 
for estimating most of the values commonly ascribed to the 
study of Latin in the secondary school so far as these lend 
themselves to definite statement as objectives, that is, as aims 
to be consciously sought in the teaching of secondary Latin. 

It should also be understood that the objectives here ex- 
amined have been defined in as concrete and specific a manner 
as possible in order better to measure their attainment under 
present conditions and also to indicate the content and 
method by which their attainment may be most effectually. 
secured. For example, since the general contribution which 
the study of Latin may make to English includes several dis- 
tinct elements, each of these elements has been evaluated as a 
separate objective in order to determine the relation of 
specific activities connected with the study of Latin to the 
attainment of each one of these objectives. 


36 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Many of these objectives contain implications of much 
wider scope and suggest values for which the foundations may 
be laid in the secondary school, but which may be expected 
to develop largely only in the case of those who continue the 
subject in college; for example, an appreciation of writers 
of English prose and poetry whose works are markedly clas- 
sical in spirit, theme or form.”* 

The validity of each objective has been estimated in the light 
of all the evidence which could be collected with the resources 
available and within the time set for the investigation. Two 
principal means have been employed in securing these data: 
(1) scientific studies,*” including tests and measurements*® 
and (2) analysis of expert opinion. As far as possible we have 
sought to determine on the basis of objective data the edu- 
cational value of certain abilities, knowledges, attitudes and 
habits which may be developed through the study of Latin, 
and to measure the extent to which they are developed under 
present conditions or are developed under more favorable 
conditions such as were provided in the controlled experi- 
ments. In addition to using these scientific studies we have 
sought to discover and analyze the opinions of a considerable 
body of experienced teachers in the fields of psychology, edu- 
cation and Latin. The chief methods used in securing an ex- 
pression of opinion have been: 

(1) A comprehensive general questionnaire filled out by 

1150 experienced secondary teachers of Latin and 


11 See Report of Committee on Ancient Languages, of the Commission of 
the National Education Association on the Reorganization of Secondary 
Education. 

12“The Progress of the Classical Investigation,” The Classical Journal, 
XVII (February, 1922), pp. 265-270, and “Report of Progress in a Num- 
ber of Special Projects Connected with the Classical Investigation,” The 
Classical Weekly, XV (April 17, 1922), pp. 170-172, 

18“The Testing Programme Involved in the Classical Investigation Now | 
Under Way,” The Classical Weekly, XV (November 14, 1921), pp. 41-43. | 





AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 37 


covering the entire field of objectives, content and 
method for the secondary course as a whole.** 


(2) A special score card for the relative evaluation of ob- 


jectives year by year filled out by over three hundred 
teachers in various parts of the country.*° 


(3) A symposium on the disciplinary aims of Latin to 


which nearly seventy leading professors of education 
and psychology contributed.*® 


On the basis of evidence secured from objective data and 
from analyses of opinion we have sought to answer the fol- 


lowing questions about each objective in the list: 


1. 


For what Latin pupils and for what proportion of Latin 
pupils is this objective of value, if attained? 


. To what extent are there elements common to the study 


of Latin and to the more general field or fields with which 
this objective is concerned? 


. To what extent is this objective attained or attainable 


through the study of Latin? 


. What content and methods are found to be most effec- 


tive in attaining this objective? 


. What constructive measures should be taken in reorgan- 


izing content and method to insure a fuller attainment 


of this objective? 


The evidence secured in answer to Questions 1, 2 and 3 
above is presented in this chapter. Questions 4 and 5 are dis- 


cussed in the two succeeding chapters on content and method, 


14 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 2, 

15 Hare, “An Evaluation of Objectives in the Teaching of Latin,’ The 
Classical Journal, XIX (December, 1923), pp. 155-165. See also Part IT, 
Chapter III, Section 3. 

16 “The Classical Investigation: The Work of the First Two Years,” The 
Classical Journal, XVIII (June, 1923), pp. 556-558. See also Part II, 
Chapter ITI, Section 4, 

17*The Classical Survey: A Preliminary Report,” The Classical Journal, 
XVII (October, 1921), pp. 18, 26. 


38 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Section 8. The Evaluation of Ultimate Objectives 
I. Instrumental and Application Objectives 


By instrumental objectives are meant those which involve 
the direct use of the ability to read and understand Latin, 
and by application objectives are meant those which involve 
the use of facts or methods acquired in the study of Latin in 
the acquisition of other facts in the linguistic experience of 
the pupil outside the immediate field of Latin. 

1. Ability to read new Latin after the study of the language 
in school or college has ceased. 

This ultimate objective is not to be confused with the pri- 
mary immediate teaching objective, namely, a progressive 
development of power to read and understand Latin, which 
is indispensable for the attainment of the other objectives of 
the study of Latin. ) 

In determining the validity of this objective, the first ques- 
tion to be asked in accordance with the plan outlined above 
is: For what Latin pupils and for what proportion of Latin 
pupils is this objective of value, if attained? The O’Shea 

study,’* based upon information secured through the exten- 
sive use of questionnaires sent to high school and college 
graduates, shows that of those college graduates who had 
studied" Latin for one, two or three years in school and had 
studied no Latin in college, one-fourth of one per cent had 


18 Part II, Chapter III, Section 7. 

19 The replies of those college graduates who are or have been teachers of 
Latin were excluded from these calculations, inasmuch as the object of 
the inquiry was to determine the effect of the study of Latin, not the 
effect of teaching the subject. It is interesting to compare the percentages 
given above, based on the replies of college graduates who had not taught 
Latin, with percentages based on the replies of those who had reported 
that they were or had been teachers of Latin. Of those graduates who had 
studied Latin five years or more and had taught Latin four years or more, 
19 per cent had during the preceding year read Latin not previously read 


“AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 39 


read during the preceding year some Latin not previously 
read; that of those who had studied Latin for four years in 
high school and none in college, 2% had read some new Latin; 
that of those who had studied Latin four years in high school 
and one or more additional years in college, 4% had read 
some new Latin. The amount read ranged from “‘short para- 
graphs in research” and “a few poems” to “the Institutes of 
Justinian” and “several hundred pages of medieval Latin.” 
An analysis of the present enrolment and distribution of 
students of Latin in the secondary schools and colleges shows 
that 860 of every thousand pupils who begin the study of 
Latin in high school discontinue the subject at the end of 
one, two or three years, 90 at the end of four years, and that 
the remaining 50 continue the subject in college. A compari- 
son of these facts with the percentages given above indicates 
that under present conditions two out of each of these three 
groups or a total of six of every 1000 who begin the study 
of Latin in high school may be expected in any one year in 
after life to read some new Latin. As will be shown, practic- 
ally all of these college graduates who answered the second 
questionnaire indicated their belief that they had secured very 
important indirect values from the study of the subject in 
high school and 86% answered “Yes” to the question: “If 
you had a son or daughter entering high school next year, 
would you advise him or her to take up the study of Latin?” 
by them. The average number of years which those comprising this 19 
per cent had taught Latin was seven; the average number of years they had 
studied Latin was seven. Of those graduates who had studied Latin for 
five years or more in high school or college and had taught Latin less 
than four years 9 per cent had read Latin not previously read by them. 
The average number of years which those comprising this 9 per cent had 
studied Latin was seven. Of those graduates who are now teachers of 
Latin 30 per cent had read Latin not previously read by them. Clearly one 


way of improving the teaching of Latin would be to secure the wider read- 
ing of Latin literature by teachers of Latin. 


40 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


In the general questionnaire, in which teachers of Latin 
were asked to indicate which of the nineteen objectives listed 
they regarded as valid for the secondary course as a whole, 
this objective received the smallest number of votes, only 
39% indicating that they regarded this objective valid for 
the secondary school course. In the score card in which teach- 
ers were asked to indicate their judgment as to the relative 
importance of these objectives, this objective was ranked 
lowest for the course as a whole. 

The next question to be asked in regard to this objective 
is: T’o what extent is this objective attained? As the O’Shea 
study deals only with those who had actually read some new 
Latin, it does not show whether or not there are also others 
who could have read new Latin had they wished to do so. 
The Ullman study,”” based upon measurements in succes- 
sive years of the secondary course, shows a progressive devel- 
opment of power to answer questions on the thought content 
of Latin of ordinary difficulty, but does not furnish evidence 
as to the extent to which ability to read Latin without the aid 
of vocabulary and notes is under present conditions devel- 
oped within the period of secondary education. 

In the general questionnaire the teachers were also asked 
to indicate with what degree of success they believed the ob- 
jectives which they regarded as valid were being attained in 
their individual schools. Of those teachers who regarded this 
objective as valid for the course as a whole 19% considered 
that the results secured in their own schools were satisfactory. 

In view of the evidence given above we believe that this ob- 
jective is not valid for most pupils in the secondary course 
and it is therefore omitted from the list of ultimate objec- 
tives recommended. 


20See Part II, Chapter I, Sectian 2. 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 41 


2. Increased ability to understand Latin words, phrases, ab- 
breviations and quotations occurring in English. 

The Walker study,”* based upon an examination of the 
reading material contained in leading newspapers and popu- 
lar magazines, shows that pupils who progress beyond the ele- 
mentary stage in their reading of English will encounter much 
material of this sort. In the reading material examined 997 
different Latin words were found, exclusive of 499 Latin 
words naturalized as English, with a total number of occur- 
rences amounting to 4,513. Thirty-eight different Latin ab- 
breviations were found, some of which have been naturalized 
as English, with a total number of occurrences amounting to 
11,245. The plurals of 81 different Latin words were found, 
with a total number of occurrences amounting to 1,391. 

This objective was regarded as valid for the secondary 
course as a whole by 94% of the teachers filling out the gen- 
eral questionnaire. In the score card this objective, somewhat 
differently stated, was ranked eighth for the first year, 
eleventh for the second year, fourteenth for the third year, 
and thirteenth for the fourth year of the secondary course. 

The Henmon study,” based on the results of tests run with 
several thousand Latin and non-Latin pupils in each of the 
various years of the secondary course, shows that Latin pu- 
pils are distinctly superior to non-Latin pupils in their abil- 
ity to interpret these Latin elements in English reading. How- 
ever, we agree with Professor Henmon that this objective, 
involving as it does a more or less direct use of Latin, should 
be attained in a far higher degree than is the case at present, 
and recommendations to that end will be made in the chapters 
dealing with content and method. 


211, V. Walker, “The Latin of Current Periodicals and Newspapers,” a 
doctor’s dissertation at the University of Wisconsin, 1923. See also Part 
II, Chapter IV, Section 8. 

22See Part II, Chapter I, Section 14. 


42 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Of the teachers who in the general questionnaire indicated 
that they regarded this objective as valid, 60% considered 
that results secured in their own schools were satisfactory. 
In view of the total results of the tests mentioned above, this 
judgment should be regarded as too favorable. 

3. Increased ability to understand the exact meaning of Eng- 
lish words derived directly or indirectly from Latin, and 
increased accuracy im their use. 

Obviously this ability is of great value** for every pupil 
who carries his formal or informal education beyond the most 
elementary stage. The Thorndike-Grinstead study,”* based 
upon a count of over 7,000,000 running words, shows that 
52% of the 17,308 English words most commonly occurring 
in the reading material examined are of Latin origin, Adding 
the words derived from Greek, largely through Latin, the total 
number of those English words of classical origin is 63%. 

This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a 
whole by 98% of the teachers filling out the general question- 
naire. In the score card it was ranked respectively third, 
first, fourth and sixth for the successive years of the four- 
year secondary course. 

The Thorndike-Ruger studies,** based on results of the 
Carr test, run with several thousand Latin and non-Latin 
pupils and covering a period of two years, show that pupils 
who had studied Latin for two semesters made an average 
growth in their knowledge of English words derived directly 
23 In so far as these words are already familiar to the pupil, a knowledge 
of their derivation is chiefly of cultural value through the vision which 
Latin gives of their origin and the insight frequently afforded by a 
knowledge of derivation into significant phases of human history. 

24 See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 2. 

25K, L. Thorndike and G. J. Ruger, “The Effect of First-Year Latin upon 

a Knowledge of English Words of Latin Derivation,” School and Society, 

XVIII (September 1, 1923), pp. 260-270, and XVIII (October 6, 1923), 


pp. 417-418; and “The Effect of Two Years of Latin upon Knowledge of 
English Words of Latin Derivation,” Part II, Chapter I, Section 9. 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 43 


from Latin two and one-half times greater than that made 
by their non-Latin classmates of the same initial ability, and 
that those pupils who had studied Latin for four semesters 
made an average superior growth in their knowledge of these 
words several times greater than that made by non-Latin 
pupils of the same initial ability. This superior growth of the 
Latin pupils is more noticeable in the first semester than in 
any succeeding semester of the two years covered by the 
tests. These tests are designed to measure growth in pas- 
sive, that is, in reading and hearing vocabulary ; but since the 
test requires the pupil to choose between five different words 
offered as interpretations of each of the test words, it is also 
in a sense a test of the pupil’s active, that is, his speaking 
and writing vocabulary. It may be assumed, moreover, that 
an increase in a pupil’s passive vocabulary ultimately results 
in an increase in his active vocabulary. The superior growth 
of Latin pupils is not uniform throughout the schools tested. 
The average growth by schools varies from practically noth- 
ing to almost the entire amount possible within the limits of 
the tests used. The Grinstead study”** shows that this varia- 
bility in growth bears a direct relation to the extent to which 
this objective has been kept in mind in the teaching of the 
Latin course. The studies*’ of Hamblen and Haskell, based 
on results secured in the Philadelphia controlled experiment 
26 See Part II, Chapter I, Section 9. 

27 A. A. Hamblen, “A Statistical Study to Determine the Amount of 
Automatic Transfer from a Study of Latin to a Knowledge of English 
Derivatives, and to Determine the Extent to which this Amount May Be 
Increased by Conscious Adaptation of Content and Method to the At- 
tainment of this Objective,” a doctor’s dissertation at the University of 
Pennsylvania, 1924. See also R. I. Haskell, “A Statistical Study of the 
Comparative Results Produced by Teaching Derivation in the Ninth- 
Grade Latin Classroom and in the Ninth-Grade English Classroom to 
Non-Latin Pupils,” a doctor’s dissertation at the University of Pennsyl- 
vania, 1924, See also “The Philadelphia Controlled Experiment in Teach- 


ing English Derivatives from Latin,” School and Society, XVI (July 8, 
1922). See also Part II, Chapter II, Section 2. 


44 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


in teaching English derivatives, show that by the conscious 
adaptation of material and method to the attainment of this 
objective a superior gain can be secured over that made by 
non-Latin, pupils three times greater than is the case when 
no special effort is directed to the attainment of this objec-_ 
tive. These studies show furthermore that the classes which 
made this superior growth in knowledge of English vocabu- 
lary also made higher scores in the Latin comprehension 
tests than did the classes which made no special effort to con- 
nect Latin with English. 

Of the teachers who in the general questionnaire indicated 
that they regarded this objective as valid, 66% considered 
that results in their own schools were satisfactory. 

4. Increased ability to read English with correct understand- 
ing. 

The fullest development of this ability is of fundamental 
importance for every boy and girl. Increased ability to read 
Kinglish is obviously dependent in part upon growth in Eng- 
lish vocabulary. The relationship between growth in English 
vocabulary and the study of Latin was pointed out in the dis- 
cussion of the preceding objective. An important problem 
awaiting further study is the determination of the extent 
to which the various mental processes employed in learning 
to read Latin may be expected to increase the pupil’s power 
to read English of increasing difficulty. 

This objective was regarded as valid for the secondary 
course as a whole by 88% of the teachers who filled out the 
general questionnaire. In the score card the objective was 
ranked respectively sixth, fifth, third and fourth for the four 
years of the course. 

The Thorndike studies, based upon results of tests run 
28K. L. Thorndike, “The Influence of First-Year Latin upon Ability to 


Read English,” School and Society, XVII (February 10, 1923), pp. 165- 
168. See also Part II, Chapter I, Section 11. 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 45 


with Latin and non-Latin pupils through a period of two 
years, show that Latin pupils made a slightly superior growth 
in the ability to read English over that made by non-Latin 
pupils of the same initial ability. In certain schools this su- 
perior growth of Latin pupils was very marked, and the rela- 
tion between methods employed in these schools and superior 
results secured will be discussed in the chapter on method. 

Of those teachers who indicated in the general questionnaire 
that they regarded this objective as valid, 57% considered 
that the results secured in their own schools were satisfactory. 
5. Increased ability to speak and write correct and effective 

English through training in adequate translation. 

Since language is an instrument not only for the expres- 
sion of thought but also for thinking itself, improved efli- 
ciency in the use of the mother tongue for these two inter- 
dependent functions is of unquestionable value to every pupil. 
Because of the synthetic character of the Latin language as 
contrasted with English and modern foreign languages and 
because of the relatively remote aspect of the ideas expressed 
in the material read in Latin when compared with those in- 
volved in the every-day activities with which English is com- 
monly associated, we believe that the process of translating 
Latin into adequate English provides a peculiarly valuable in- 
strument for developing the power of thinking and of express- 
ing thought “‘by increasing the extent of vocabulary, by ren- 
dering vocabulary more precise and accurate as an intellect- 
ual instrument, and by aiding the development of the habit 
of interrelating words so as to facilitate consecutive thinking 
and consecutive thought.” 

This objective was regarded as valid for the secondary 


29 A. J. Inglis, Principles of Secondary Education, pp. 472-473, See also 
the Report of the Committee on Classical Languages of the Commission 
of the National Education Association on the Reorganization of Sec- 
ondary Education, 


46 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


course as a whole by 90% of the teachers answering the gen- 
eral questionnaire. In the score card, where the definition of 
this objective included the development of the power of think- 
ing as well.as of expressing thought, it was ranked fifth for the 


first year, fourth for the second year, and first for the third | 


and fourth years of the course. 

Not enough schools participated in the English composi- 
tion tests, which were planned as a part of the national test- 
ing programme, to provide data for determining the extent 
to which this objective is at present attained through the 
study of Latin. Objective studies are needed to determine the 
extent to which the various mental processes involved in trans- 
lating Latin into English may be made to contribute to the 
attainment of this objective. 

One important element in an increased ability to speak and 
write correct and effective English is the possession of an 
enlarged and refined vocabulary. The contribution which 
the study of Latin may make to a knowledge of English 
words derived from Latin has already been discussed. The 
Thorndike-Ruger studies*® show that in the non-Latin words 
of the Carr test Latin pupils during the first and second 
semesters made no gain over the non-Latin pupils of the same 
initial ability, but that during the second year, when the 
translation of continuous discourse commonly becomes a 
prominent element in the study of Latin, the Latin pupils 
made a somewhat greater growth in their knowledge of non- 
Latin words than did non-Latin pupils of the same initial 
ability. The Thorndike studies based upon results of the 
Thorndike Test of Word Knowledge, which consists of words 
of less average difficulty than those in the Carr test, show 


30K, L. Thorndike and G. J. Ruger, “The Effect of First-Year Latin 
upon Knowledge of English Words of Latin Derivation,” School and 
Society, XVIII (September 1, 1923), pp. 260-270, and XVIII (October 
6, 1923), pp. 417-418. See also Part II, Chapter I, Section 9. 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES AT 


that the Latin pupils made a slightly greater growth than 
that made by non-Latin pupils of the same initial ability, but 
that the difference in growth by semesters is too slight to 
warrant a conclusion as to the cause of the superiority. 

In emphasizing the value of translation as a means of in- 
creasing the pupil’s ability to speak and write English it is 
assumed that translation involves the expression in English 
of a thought already comprehended in Latin, and not a mere 
exchange of verbal symbols. The extent to which translation 
contributes to the attainment of this objective depends there- 
fore not only upon comprehension of the thought in the 
Latin, but also upon the adequacy of the English employed 
in translating the thought comprehended. 

Ninety-six per cent of the teachers filling out the general 
questionnaire expressed the opinion that pupils should be 
regularly required to translate prepared assignments into 
idiomatic English. Data are available to show the extent to 
which idiomatic English is actually secured in class-room 
translation of prepared assignments. In connection with the 
preparation of the Leonard translation scales** written trans- 
lations of passages from Caesar, Cicero and Vergil were se- 
cured from several thousand pupils. These translations were 
written in class with the aid of vocabulary and notes, after 
the passages had been assigned for outside preparation. 
Fully 46% of the 1,288 Caesar passages translated by fourth- 
semester pupils were rated by a jury of Latin teachers as 
below the standard of acceptability as English. In the Miller- 
Briggs study*’ of class-room translations of Cicero it was 
found that 34% of the translations showed complete failure 
to comprehend the thought of the passage and that an addi- 


815. A. Leonard, “Scales for Improving the Quality of Translation,” 
Part II, Chapter IV, Section 7. 

82S. R. Miller and T. H. Briggs, “The Effect of Latin Translation on 
English,” School Review, XXXI (December, 1923), pp. 756-762. 


48 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


tional 40% fell below the standard of acceptable English. 
This showing is so poor that it is obvious that new methods 
of teaching which will cause improvement are highly desir- 
able. It should be remembered, however, that the power of ex- 
pression in English is very low among high school students 
generally. For example, the standard for eleventh-grade 
pupils on the Nassau English Composition Scale is only 7 
out of a possible 26. 

Of the teachers who in the general questionnaire indicated 
that they regarded this objective as valid, 42% considered 
that satisfactory results were being secured in their own 
schools. The need for raising the standard of class-room 
translation is evident, and recommendations to that end will 
be found in the chapters on content and method. 

6. Increased ability to spell English words of Latin dertva- 
tion. 

The universal value of this ability is unquestioned, The 
Lawler study,** based on an analysis of 982,800 spellings 
made by seventh-, eighth- and ninth-grade pupils, shows 
that of the 2,977 different words in the list chosen, 49% are 
of Latin origin, and that approximately 70% of the mis- 
spellings occurring two or more times in these Latin-derived 
words are remediable through the study of Latin. 

This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a 
whole by 887% of the teachers filling out the general question- 
naire. In the score card this objective was ranked respectively 
fourth, sixth, sixteenth and seventeenth for the first, second, 
third and fourth years of the course. 

The Coxe study,** based on tests run with several thousand 
331, B. Lawler, “The Remediability of Errors in English Spelling through 
the Study of First-Year Latin,” a doctor’s dissertation at the State Uni- 
versity of Iowa, 1924. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 6. 

34 W, W. Coxe, “The Influence of Latin on the Spelling of English Words,” 


a doctor’s dissertation at the Ohio State University, 1923 (Publie School 
Publishing Co.). See also Part II, Chapter I, Section 13. 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 49 


pupils through a period of one year, shows that first-year 
Latin pupils made a growth in ability to spell English words 
of Latin origin one and one-half times greater than that 
made by their non-Latin classmates of the same initial ability, 
and on the basis of results secured in the Columbus-Rochester 
controlled experiment in the teaching of English spelling, it 
also shows that by the use of methods consciously adapted to 
the attainment of this objective a gain can be secured three 
times greater than is the case when no special effort is di- 
rected to the attainment of this objective. This controlled 
experiment also shows that the study of Latin interferes 
slightly with the spelling of words of non-Latin origin, but 
that this interference may be eliminated by the use of proper 
methods. 

Of those teachers who in the general questionnaire indi- 
cated that they regarded this objective as valid, 51% con- 
sidered that satisfactory results were secured in their own 
schools, 

7. Increased knowledge of the principles of English grammar 
and a consequently increased ability to speak and write 
grammatically correct English. 

The high value of the ability to speak and write gram- 
matically correct English is not questioned, but it is often 
questioned whether this ability is dependent upon knowledge 
of the principles of English grammar. The Kirby study,” 
based on the results of the Kirby English Grammar ‘Test, 
shows that the coefficient of correlation between ability to 
choose the correct grammatical form and ability to choose 
the grammatical principle involved is .65. The Charters- 
Ullman study of 25,000 language errors shows that 22% of 
the errors made were due to failure to understand or to apply 


syntactical principles common to Latin and English, and 


35'T. J, Kirby, in a study not yet published. 


50 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


that an additional 73% of these errors are of such a anes 
that they are remediable through the study of Latin.*° : 

This objective, so stated as to be susceptible to a somewhat 
broader itterpretation, was regarded as valid for the course 
as a whole by 97% of the teachers filling out the general ques- 
tionnaire. In the score card this objective was ranked first 
for the first and second years, eighth for the third year, and 
sixteerith for the fourth year. 

The Thorndike study,*’ based on the results of tests run 
through a period of one year, shows that pupils who had 
studied Latin for two semesters made a growth both in abil- 
ity to use the correct English form and in ability to state the 
principle governing the correct usage ten per cent greater 
than that made by their non-Latin classmates of the same 
initial ability. The Bates study,** based on the results of the 
Iowa controlled experiment, shows that Latin pupils made a 
greater gain than non-Latin pupils in a series of grammar 
tests, and that by a conscious adaptation of method to the 
attainment of this objective a gain can be secured more than 
double the gain resulting when no special effort is made to 
attain this objective. 

Of the teachers who indicated in the general questionnaire 
that they regarded this objective as valid, 72% considered 
that satisfactory results were being secured in their own 
schools. The difference between the judgment of teachers as 
to the degree of attainment of this objective and the conclu- 
sions drawn from the tests is due in part to the lack of defin- 
ite standards of achievement and of satisfactory instruments 
for measuring growth of Latin pupils in this field, and in 


86 See Part II, Appendix E. 

37 See Part II, Chapter I, Section 12. 

38 F, Bates, “A Controlled Experiment in the Teaching of English Gram- 
mar through Latin,” a master’s dissertation at the State University of 
Iowa, 1924. See also Part II, Chapter II, Section 4. 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 51 


part to the lack of definite material for class-room use in 

applying the principles of Latin grammar to the correction 

of grammatical errors in English speech. 

8. Increased ability to learn the technical and semi-technical 
terms of Latin origin employed in other school studies and 
in professions and vocations. 

The Scheck study*® shows that of 10,435 pupils who en- 
tered high school in 1914, 1915, 1916 and 1917 and began 
the study of Latin, 22% studied physical geography during 
their high school course, 0% general science, 33% chemis- 
try, 88% physics, 50% biology, 98% mathematics, 6% gen- 
eral history, 81% ancient history, 30% medieval history, 
35% modern history, 55% American history and 27% var- 
ious commercial subjects. The percentages of pupils who ulti- 
mately study certain of these subjects would be increased if 
information were available regarding the subjects they stud- 
ied later in college. | 

The Enlow study*® of the technical and semi-technical 
words occurring in the most commonly used text-books in 
general science, biology, physics and chemistry shows that 
49.77% of these words are of Latin origin and 38.8% are of 
Greek origin, or 88.5% in all. 

The Pressey study** of the vocabularies of commonly used 
high school text-books in mathematics, the sciences, history 
and the languages shows that of the words presumably un- 
familiar (including: technical and_ semi-technical terms) 
over 50% are of Latin origin. 


39C. C. Scheck, “The Validity of Certain Objectives in the Teaching of 
Latin,” a master’s dissertation at the University of Rochester, 1923. See 
also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 11. 

40 G, L. Enlow, “An Analysis of the Technical and Semi-Technical Vocab- 
ularies of High School] Text-Books,” a master’s dissertation at the State 
University of Iowa, 1924. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 5. 

41L. C. Pressey, The Vocabularies of High School Subjects, Public School 
Publishing Co., 1924. See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 5. 


52 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


This objective was regarded as valid for the secondary 
course as a whole by 81% of the teachers who answered the 
general questionnaire. In the score card this objective was 
ranked respectively eleventh, thirteenth, eighteenth and nine- 
teenth for the four years of the course. 

Of those teachers who indicated in the general question- 
naire that they regarded this objective as valid, 44% con- 
sidered that satisfactory results were being secured in their 
own schools. The bearing of this objective upon the distribu- 
tion of emphasis in the teaching of Latin vocabulary will be 
discussed in the chapters on content and method. 

9. Increased ability to learn other foreign languages. 

The Scheck study shows that of 10,435 pupils who entered 
high school in 1914, 1915, 1916 and 1917 and began the study 
of Latin, 42% studied French, 18% Spanish, and 26% Ger- 
man during their high school course. Other available data 
indicate that the great decrease in the study of German dur- 
ing the war was accompanied by a corresponding increase in 
the study of French and Spanish. Furthermore, if informa- 
tion were available concerning the number of the pupils who 
ultimately began the study of one or more of these languages 
in college, these percentages would be somewhat increased. 

While the most important single element common to Latin 
and French is found in vocabulary, the McGorey study** 
shows that many principles and details of Latin grammar 
apply also to French. 

This objective was considered valid for the course as a 
whole by 91% of the teachers answering the general ques- 
tionnaire. In the score card it was ranked respectively eighth, 
tenth, twelfth, and thirteenth for the four years of the course. 

The Henmon study,** based on tests in vocabulary and sen- 
tence translation, run with several thousand Latin and non- 


42See Part II, Chapter II, Section 6, and Appendix D, 
43 See Part II, Chapter I, Section 15, 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 53 


Latin pupils at the end of their first year of French, shows 
that when the scores of Latin and non-Latin pupils are com- 
pared without reference to the general ability of the two 
groups the average score of Latin pupils is markedly higher, 
put that when Latin pupils are compared with non-Latin 
pupils on the basis of equal general scholarship the larger 
part of the superiority of the Latin pupils disappears. The 
superiority remaining, though measurable, is small, amount- 
ng in the vocabulary test of 50 words to .56 words for two- 
semester Latin pupils, increasing to 2.10 words for four- 
semester Latin pupils and to 4.58 words for six-semester 
Latin pupils. In the translation test consisting of twelve sen- 
ences the superiority of Latin pupils on a paired basis is .41 
sentences for two-semester Latin pupils, and .40 sentences for 
our-semester Latin pupils, increasing to 1.03 sentences for 
ix-semester Latin pupils. The results of tests run with the 
ame pupils at the end of their second year of French, show 
hat the superiority of Latin pupils observable at the end of 
he first year of French is not apparent at the end of the 
second year. , 

The Kirby study,** based on the records of students at the 
State University of Iowa, shows that under present condi- 
ions of teaching Latin and French the student’s chances of 
success in first-year French in college are slightly increased 
n proportion to the number of years he has studied Latin in 
school. The Hill study, made under the direction of Pro- 
essor Kirby and with his full approval, shows that ‘Latin 
yursued in the high school has a significant positive cor- 


4T,. J. Kirby, “Latin as a Preparation for French,” School and So- 
iety, XVIII (November 10, 1923), pp. 563-569, See also Part II, Chap- 
er IV, Section 12. J. L. Hill, “The Relation of the Amount of Latin 
Pursued in High School to Success in First-Semester French in the Uni- 
ersity of Iowa,” a master’s dissertation, 1924. I, F. Heald, “Relation 
yetween the Study of Latin in High School and First-Year College 
‘rench,” a master’s dissertation at the University of Iowa, 1923. 


54 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


relation with success in first-semester French in the Univer- 
sity of Iowa.” This is specially notable in the case of stu- 
dents who offered three or four years, instead of two years, 
of Latin for college entrance. The sum of the author’s con- 
clusions is that ‘“‘the correlation between intelligence and 
grades in French was very little greater than the correlation 
between study in Latin and grades in French. This means 
that, given the intelligence necessary for college entrance, 
Latin study is about as important a factor for success in 
French as superior intelligence” is.** The general results of 
the Hill study confirm the results found in the Heald 
study.** The Cole study,* based on the records of students at 
Oberlin College, shows that the student’s chances of success 
in first-year French or Spanish in college are slightly in- 
creased in proportion to the number of years he has studied 
Latin in school. The results of the Cleveland controlled ex- 
periment*® show that by better correlation in the teaching of 
Latin and French in school the amount of Latin-French 
transfer can be very greatly increased.*’ Much of the re- 
sponsibility for using advantageously the correlation between 
Latin and the Romance languages rests upon teachers of the 
latter languages. Romance text-books and methods which 
take into account the fact that many students of these lan- 
guages have previously studied Latin naturally lead to richer 
results. 

Of the teachers who in the general questionnaire indicated 
that they regarded this objective as valid, 77% considered 
that satisfactory results were being secured in their own 
schools. Here it seems probable that the judgment of the 
teachers is too favorable. 

451. E. Cole, “Latin as a Preparation for French and Spanish,” School 
and Society, XIX (May 24, 1924), pp. 618-622. See also Part II, Chapter 
IV, Section 12. 


46 See Part II, Chapter IT, Section 6. 
47 See also Table IT, p. 244. 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 55 


Il. Disciplinary Objectives 

In the foregoing analyses of the instrumental and applica- 
tion objectives we were able in most cases to secure objective 
data as to their educational value, if attained, and to measure 
the extent to which they were being attained. This was pos- 
sible because of the greater tangibility of these objectives as 
compared with the disciplinary and cultural objectives and 
because of their correspondingly greater susceptibility to 
statistical treatment. 

The factors involved in experiments and measurements 
dealing with disciplinary objectives*® are so numerous and 
so complicated that in the present state of development of 
experimental technique it was found impossible to secure the 
cooperation necessary to carry out conclusive scientific 
studies in this field within the time limits set for the investiga- 
tion. Accordingly the evaluation of the disciplinary objec- 
tives has been limited mainly to an analysis of opinions se- 
cured from recognized authorities in the fields of education 
and psychology and from experienced teachers of Latin. Use 
has also been made of the results of other investigations in 
this field. 

1. The development of certain desirable habits and ideals 
which are subject to spread, such as habits of sustained 
attention, orderly procedure, overcoming obstacles, per- 
severance; ideals of achievement, accuracy and thorough- 
ness; and the cultivation of certain general attitudes such 
as dissatisfaction with failure or with partial success. 

It is obvious that the development of these mental traits 


48 The problem of transfer, so far as it is related to the carry-over of con- 
tent-elements common to the linguistic experiences of the pupils, has 
already ‘been discussed in connection with the application objectives in 
the attainment of which such transfer is involved. The disciplinary objec- 
tives here discussed are concerned not with the carry-over of common 
content-elements, but with the transfer of general habits, ideals and at- 
titudes. 


56 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


is not the province of Latin alone, but should be sought in 
every sub ject in the curriculum. This fact, however, does not 
absolve teachers of Latin from the responsibility of so organ- 
izing the.content and method of the Latin course that the 
study of Latin shall make its greatest possible contribution 
to the attainment of this common objective. 

If these mental traits can be developed through the study 
of Latin and if their spread to other situations and expert- 
ences can be effected, then the importance of this objective 
for all pupils who are studying Latin is evident. Practically 
all the psychologists who contributed to the symposium on 
disciplinary objectives in the study of Latin expressed the 
opinion that these traits, if developed in the study of Latin, 
are subject to spread.** This indicates a very marked change 
in the opinion of psychologists during the last twenty years. 
The majority of these psychologists expressed the opinion 
that the transfer of these mental traits to other fields is auto- 
matic only to a slight extent, if at all.°° 


49'The question was as follows: “Do you consider that these traits, if de- 
veloped in the study of Latin, are subject to spread in fields outside of 
Latin?” Of the sixty-two psychologists answering this question, thirty- 
eight answered unqualifiedly in the affirmative; fourteen express the view 
that transfer occurs under definite conditions and to a limited extent; 
five believe that the transfer is very slight; two do not believe that any 
transfer takes place; while three are doubtful. See Part II, Chapter ITI, 
Section 4. See also “The Reorganization of Mathematics in Secondary 
Education,” p. 98, where it is shown that 87 per cent of the psychologists 
answering the questionnaire sent out by the National Committee on 
Mathematical Requirements expressed the opinion that transfer of 
training is an established fact. 

50'The form of the question was: “To what extent and amount is this 
spread in your judgment automatic, i.e., occurring without conscious 
adaptation of content and method to this end?” Of the fifty-nine psycholo- 
gists answering this question thirty-three express the opinion that no 
automatic transfer occurs at all or that it is slight or negligible; one be- 
lieves that transfer is at first conscious and tends to become automatic; 
three believe that automatic transfer occurs only to the extent to which 
common elements are present or when the applications are so nearly iden- 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 57 


Practically all these psychologists, including those who be- 
lieve that there is some automatic transfer, are agreed that 
the extent and amount of this transfer can be increased in 
proportion to the extent to which favorable conditions as to 
method are provided.”* Of these over 70% expressed the view 
that conscious generalization is essential or desirable.°’ This 
means that to guarantee a considerable transfer the common 
element to be transferred must be brought specifically to the 
pupil’s attention and generalized into a principle, and the 
application of the principle to other fields made clear. The 
standard set for the preparation of the regular Latin work 
should then be set up as an end worth striving for, not only 
in Latin but in all subjects. “The real problem of transfer is 
a problem of so organizing the method of training that it 
will carry over in the minds of the students to other fields.”* 

This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a 
whole by 938% of the teachers answering the general ques- 
tionnaire. In the score card this objective was ranked respec- 
tively second, first, second and fifth for the four years of the 
course. 


tical that they are matters of course; three believe that the amount of 
spread is dependent upon the teacher or pupil; five are doubtful; five 
believe that transfer is to some extent automatic; four that there is con- 
siderable automatic transfer and five that transfer is largely or almost 
entirely automatic. See Part II, Chapter III, Section 4. 

51 The form of question was: “Can the extent and amount of this spread 
be increased by providing more favorable conditions as to method?” Of 
the fifty-nine psychologists answering this question fifty-seven replied in 
the affirmative and two in the negative. See Part II, Chapter III, Sec- 
tion 4, 

52 The form of the question was: “What methods would in your judgment 
provide the conditions most favorable to the development of these mental 
traits? Is it essential, for example, that a particular trait be consciously 
generalized?” Of the fifty-six psychologists answering this question, forty 
answered the last half of the question in the affirmative. See Part II, 
Chapter III, Section 4. 

53C, H. Judd in The Reorganization of Mathematics in Secondary Edu- 
cation, p. 99, 


58 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


It is evident, however, that habits, ideals and attitudes will 
not be transferred unless they are actually developed in the 
original training. The Brueckner study,” based upon the 
results of tests given throughout the country, shows wide 
variability in the extent to which these mental traits have 
been exemplified in the mastering of Latin itself. The Cra- 


54a 


thorne study’*” shows that the correlation in the marks se- 
cured. by pupils in sequential courses in Latin is higher 
than in the case of any other sequential high school sub- 
ject. This means that successive courses in Latin exhibit 
a very close inner relationship and therefore are more effec- 
tive for the cumulative development of habits essential to the 
successful study of Latin. A supplementary study®® by Cra- 
thorne shows, furthermore, that there:is a higher correlation 
between marks in first-year Latin and marks in other sub- 
jects in the three years following than is true of any other 
first-year subject. Experimental studies are needed to deter- 
mine whether this relatively close relation between the study 
of first-year Latin and the study of succeeding subjects is 
due to the presence of common content-elements, to a transfer 
of general habits acquired through the study of Latin, to the 
fact that Latin selects pupils of a higher average ability, or 
to two or all of these factors working together. 

Of those teachers who in the general questionnaire indi- 
cated that they regarded this objective as valid, 56% con- 
sidered that results being secured in their own schools were 
satisfactory. 


541. J. Brueckner, “The Status of Certain Basic Latin Skills,’ Journal 
of Educational Research, 1X (May, 1924), pp. 390-402, 

548 A, R. Crathorne, “The Theory of Correlation Applied to School 
Grades,” in The Reorganization of Mathematics in Secondary Education, 
pp. 105-128. 

55 See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 18. 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 59 


2. Development of the habit of discovering identical elements 
in different situations and experiences, and of making true 
generalizations. 

The study of Latin offers peculiarly favorable conditions 
for the development of this habit because of the numerous con- 
tacts it affords with the other linguistic experiences of the 
pupil, as was pointed out in the analyses of the instrumental 
and application objectives. The development of this general 
habit is the function of the specific training in recognizing 
and utilizing the elements common to Latin and to the various 
linguistic experiences with which the application objectives 
are concerned. — 

Even more important than the direct specific gain from 
the application to other fields of facts and methods of pro- 
cedure acquired in Latin is the development of the general 
habit of recognizing identical elements in diverse experiences, 
singling them out and making true generalizations. When this 
habit has been consciously developed it constitutes the com- 
mon element that will be found in many situations and exper- 
iences outside the particular fields in which the pupil has been 
given specific training in recognizing and relating common 
content-elements. Unless this general habit is developed, the 
specific transfers, while eminently valuable in themselves, 
will naturally be limited in operation to those fields within 
which they were orginally developed. Furthermore, the devel- 
opment of such a general habit gives unity, coherence and an 
ultimate common goal to the various types of application 
discussed above. Suggestions will be given in the chapter on 
method for developing in the pupils this general habit in con- 
nection with the study of vocabulary, syntax, forms and the 
comprehension and translation of the Latin sentence. 


60 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 
3. The development of correct habits of reflective thinking 
applicable to the mastery of other subjects of study and 
to the solution of analogous problems in daily life. 
Reflective thinking may be defined as that mental opera- 
tion in which present facts suggest other facts in such a way 
as to induce belief in the latter on the basis of the former.”® 
It includes the observation of pertinent facts, suspense of 
judgment pending examination of the facts, comparison of 
the facts observed to discover significant relations, the relat- 
ing of cause and effect, the making of a final inference or 
judgment, and the use of a conclusion thus reached in the 
solution of analogous problems. Everyone has constant need 
of drawing such inferences ; for the reasoning process involved 
is essentially the same, whether it concerns a carefully 
worked out scientific experiment or the ordinary affairs of 
daily life. If Latin is so taught that the drawing of such infer- 
ences becomes an integral part of the pupil’s method of study 
and is so taught that the habit thus established carries over 
into fields outside of Latin, it is obvious that this objective 
becomes of vital importance to every Latin pupil. The most 
noteworthy recent study in this field is that of Thorndike. 
This study,°" based on results of a test in certain aspects of 
relational thinking given to several thousand tenth-grade 
pupils, shows that the amount of growth produced by certain 
school subjects in the ability measured by this test varies so 
slightly that no definite conclusions can be drawn therefrom. 
The answers of teachers to questions in that section of the 
general questionnaire which is devoted to methods” reveal a 
practically unanimous opinion that the methods commonly 


56 Dewey, How We Think, p. 8. 

67 KE, L. Thorndike, “Mental Discipline in High School Studies,” Journal 
of Educational Psychology, XV (January, 1924), pp. 1-22; ibid., XV 
(February, 1924), pp. 83-98. 

58 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 61 


used at present in studying the various elements of Latin 
should be so modified as to meet the two conditions stated 
above. It is a significant fact that methods recommended by 
teachers in the general questionnaire as most valuable for the 
study of vocabulary, syntax, forms and the comprehension 
and translation of the Latin sentence for the sake of progress 
in Latin itself are precisely those which involve the drawing 
of such inferences, and which were accordingly recommended 
by the teachers as most likely to lead to the attainment of this 
objective. 

This objective was regarded as valid for the secondary 
course as a whole by 91% of the teachers answering the gen- 
eral questionnaire. In the score card, where this objective 
had been so stated as to have a more limited scope, it was 
ranked respectively tenth, ninth, sixth and eighth for the 
four years of the course. 

Of those teachers who indicated that they regarded this 
objective as valid, 51% considered that results in their own 
schools were satisfactory. 

4. Increased ability to make formal logical analyses. 

The term logical is here used in its stricter sense, referring 
only to that which follows necessarily from premises which 
are definite in meaning and which have been previously as- 
sumed or proved to be true. 

It is clear from evidence furnished by the general ques- 
tionnaire and the pupil’s question-blank that teachers of 
Latin at present give much time to syntactical analysis in 
connection with translation and prose composition, and that 
to a large extent this practice is directed to the attainment 
of this objective. The process of classifying grammatical con- 
structions and referring them to rules is in essence a deductive 
syllogism, and it furnishes a type of training analogous to 
that received in the study of formal logic. It is also more con- 
crete and consequently more comprehensible by younger 


62 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


minds. It therefore has a use more readily recognizable and 
more applicable than they would find in abstract deductive 
logic, which is not suited to their early stage of development. 
These first dawnings of logical reasoning may be trusted to 
develop of themselves under good teaching of Latin, but we 
are of the opinion that ability to make formal logical analyses 
is not a suitable conscious objective of the school course in 
Latin. 

The extent to which syntactical analysis is justified by the 
direct or indirect assistance which it affords the pupil in 
solving actual difficulties in comprehending the thought of a 
Latin sentence will be discussed in the chapter on method. 


Ill. Cultural Objectives 


By cultural objectives are meant those concerned with in- 
creasing the pupil’s fund of information, developing his ca- 
pacity for appreciation, extending his intellectual horizon, 
and broadening his sympathies by direct contact, through 
the study of their language and literature, with the mind of 
a people remote in time and place. 

1. Development of an historical perspective and of a general 
cultural background through an increased knowledge of 
facts relating to the life, history, institutions, mythology 
and religion of the Romans; an increased appreciation of 
the influence of their civilization on the course of western 
civilization; and a broader understanding of social and 
political problems of today. 

It is generally agreed that the solution of present-day 
social, political and economic problems will be aided by an 
intelligent knowledge of the experience of the race, and that 
some knowledge of the early history of our civilization is a 
desirable element in the training for intelligent American 
citizenship. The unique value of Roman history for this pur- 
pose is due not only to the immense direct contribution which 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 63 


Roman civilization has made to our modern world, but also to 
the fact that through Rome we have received rich inheritances 
from other and older civilizations.”° 

We believe that the best key to a direct and intimate un- 
derstanding of the Romans and of their civilization is a first- 
hand contact with their language and literature. A pupil who 
has learned to comprehend the thought of a Latin sentence in 
the original has to that extent thought as a Roman and has 
come into direct contact with the genius of the Roman mind 
in the medium which is the most perfect embodiment of that 
genius, the Latin language.” 


59 “Ancient history is the key to all history, not to political history only, 
but to the record also of the changing thoughts and beliefs of races and 
peoples.” James Bryce, Fortnightly Review, Vol. 107 (April, 1917), p. 562. 
“We are learning that European history, from its first glimmerings to 
our own day, is one unbroken drama, no part of which can be rightly un- 
derstood without reference to the other parts which come before and after 
it. We are learning that of this great drama Rome is the centre, the point 
to which all roads lead, and from which all roads lead no less, It is the vast 
lake in which all the streams of earlier history lose themselves, and from 
which all the streams of later history flow forth again.” E. A. Freeman, 
Comparative Politics: The Unity of History (London, 1874), p. 306. 
“It is just because here (i.e., in antiquity) the development has come 
to an end, because ancient history is finished and gone, and lies before our 
eye complete and entire, that we may put questions to it and derive les- 
sons from it such as are possible in no other part of history.” Eduard 
Meyer, Kleine Schriften (Halle, 1910), p. 217. 
60“The study of Latin is a genuine speech experience; and this is pri- 
marily a form of participation in the social inheritance. As reading Eng- 
lish is sharing the experience of those who speak and write English so 
reading Latin is sharing the experience of those who spoke and wrote 
Latin. At the beginning, it is true, the pupil’s activity is based largely on 
a play interest coupled with curiosity as to the meaning of the new words 
and as to the novel structure of the strange tongue. This language-interest 
should from the first be joined with a study of other aspects of Roman 
life. As control over the language grows, the pupil’s interest should be 
increasingly directed to the larger meaning of what he reads. With an 
appreciation of this comes an expansion of intellectual and emotional life, 
The pupil may enter, at least in some measure, into the spirit of the great 
people whose literature he reads. According to his ability and opportunity 


64 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


We further believe that if the reading content of the Latin 
course is organized with this objective clearly in view, a suffi- 
ciently close contact may be established with important social 
and political aspects of Roman life to insure an appreciable 
contribution to the pupil’s fund of actual knowledge, and to 
give him a point of view and an interest which will result both 
in a more extensive reading in English concerning Roman 
life and history and in a more intelligent appreciation of the 
significance of what he reads. The study of Latin and of 
Roman history should therefore be kept in close relation to 
each other. 

This objective was regarded as valid for the secondary 
course as a whole by 94% of the teachers answering the gen- 
eral questionnaire. In the score card this objective was 
ranked respectively twelfth, eighth, fifth and seventh for the 
four years of the course. 

We were able in the testing programme to examine only a 
small portion of the field included in this objective. The re- 
sults of a test in classical references and allusions will be 
discussed in connection with the analysis of the next objec- 
tive. The two other tests concerned with this objective were 
limited in their scope to the content and some of the historical 
implications of the authors commonly read in the second and 
third years of the course. 

The results of the Davis-Hicks true-false test,°* run with 
Latin and non-Latin pupils who were completing their third 
year’s work in high school without having studied ancient 
history, show a marked superiority of three-year Latin pupils 
over non-Latin pupils of the same general scholastic ability 


he may be a partaker in the heritage that this people has bequeathed.” 
From the Report of the Committee on Classical Languages of the Com- 
mission of the National Education Association for the Reorganization of 
Secondary Education. 

61 See Part II, Chapter I, Section 16. 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 65 


in their knowledge of outstanding historical facts connected 
with the content and background of Caesar’s Gallic War 
and of the orations of Cicero commonly read. ‘The superiority 
of two-year Latin pupils over non-Latin pupils in that sec- 
tion of the test concerned with the content and background of 
Caesar’s Gallic War was somewhat less marked. The degree 
of attainment of the three-year and two-year Latin pupils as 
compared with the non-Latin pupils of the same general 
scholastic ability was found to be nearly the same in the 
case of those third-year high school pupils who had studied 
ancient history. Results of the Davis-Hicks test®’ on the con- 
tent and background of Caesar’s Gallic War, run with Latin 
and non-Latin pupils who were completing their second year 
in high school, show an average superiority on the part of 
two-year Latin pupils over non-Latin pupils, although this 
superiority is very shght in those portions of the test con- 
cerned with the larger historical implications of the text. 
A study of the methods used in teaching the various classes 
tested shows a close relation between the amount of emphasis 
placed on the historical content and background of the text 
read and the class median scores. 

The Hicks study,°* based upon the Pittsburgh controlled 
experiment, shows that with a more discriminating emphasis 
upon the important historical implications of the text read 
a much better grasp of the historical content and background 
can be secured than was found to be the case in the country as 
a whole. 

Of those teachers who indicated in the general question- 
naire that they regarded this objective as valid, 41% con- 
sidered that satisfactory results were being secured in their 


62 See Part II, Chapter I, Section 17. 

63 EH, EK, Hicks, “Controlled Experiment in the Teaching of the Historical 
Content and Background of Caesar’s Gallic War,” a doctor’s dissertation 
at the University of Pittsburgh. See also Part II, Chapter I, section 17. 


66 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 

own schools. There is evident need of better adaptation of the 

content and methods to the attainment of this objective, and 

recommendations to that end will be found in Chapters IV 

and V. . 

2. Increased ability to understand and appreciate references 
and allusions to the mythology, traditions and history of 
the Greeks and Romans. 

The studies** of King and Bunyan, based on an examination 
of the reading material found in books commonly read by 
high school pupils and in contemporary magazines and news- 
papers, show that pupils who progress beyond the most ele- 
mentary stage in their reading will encounter many refer- 
ences and allusions of this sort. In the material examined 
there were found 5,242 definite references to characters, 
places, events and ideas connected with the history, mythol- 
ogy and life of the Greeks and Romans. 

This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a 
whole by 94% of the teachers who answered the general ques- 
tionnaire. In the score card this objective was ranked respec- 
tively thirteenth, fifteenth, fourteenth and second for the 
four years of the course. The Clark study,’ based upon the 
results of 4,000 tests run with Latin and non-Latin pupils at 
the end of the eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth 
grades, shows that from the end of the eighth to the end of 
the ninth grade and from the end of the ninth to the end of the 
tenth grade the median of the Latin pupils rose less than the 
median of the non-Latin pupils, but that from the end of the 


64R. B. King, “Classical Allusions in Certain. Newspapers and Maga- 
zines,” a master’s dissertation at the University of Wisconsin, 1922; and 
M. F. Bunyan, “Classical Allusions in the English Reading of High School 
Pupils,” a master’s dissertation at the University of Wisconsin, 1922. See 
also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 9. 

65 G, W. Clark, “The Relative Ability of Latin over Non-Latin Pupils to 
Explain Classical References,” a master’s dissertation at the State Uni- 
versity of Iowa, 1923. See also Part II, Chapter I, Section 18, 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 67 


tenth to the end of the twelfth grade the median of Latin 
pupils rose 877% while that of the non-Latin pupils fell 8%. 
The significance of the fact that Latin pupils make so little 
growth in this ability during the first two years, though mak- 
ing so large a gain in the last two years, will be discussed in 
the chapter on content. 

Of the teachers who indicated in the general questionnaire 
that they regarded this objective as valid, 61% considered 
that satisfactory results were being secured in their own 
schools. 

3. The development of right attitudes toward social situa- 
tions. 

It will be agreed that the characteristic Roman virtues, 
such as patriotism, honor and self-sacrifice, reveal standards 
which should be kept before American boys and girls today. 
We believe that these make a more real and vivid appeal to 
the pupils when they are presented in their original utterance, 
that is, in the language of the characters whose virtues are 
described. The development of such attitudes through the 
study of Latin is largely contingent upon the use and sympa- 
thetic interpretation throughout the course of appropriate 
reading material illustrating these traits. 

This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a 
whole by 71% of the teachers who answered the general ques- 
tionnaire. In the score card this objective was ranked respec- 
tively sixteenth, seventeenth, eleventh and eleventh for the 
four years of the course. 

Of those teachers who indicated that they regarded this 
objective as valid, only 25% were of opinion that the results 
being secured in their own schools were satisfactory. It is 
clear that marked improvement is needed here. 

4. A better acquaintance through the study of their writings 
with some of the chief personal characteristics of the au- 
thors read. 


68 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


The validity of this objective depends upon the historical 
and literary importance of the authors selected for reading, 
upon the extent to which the characters of the authors are 
revealed through selections chosen, and upon the extent to 
which a more intimate acquaintance is obtained through 
reading their works in the language in which they were written 
than is obtained through reading them in translations. This 
objective was regarded as valid for the course as a whole by 
74% of the teachers who answered the questionnaire. In the 
score card it was ranked respectively nineteenth, eleventh, 
ninth and twelfth for the four years of the course. 

Of those teachers who indicated in the general question- 
naire that they regarded this objective as valid, 55% were of 
opinion that results secured in their own schools were satis- 
factory. 

5. The development of an appreciation of the literary quali- 
ties in the Latin authors read and development of a capa- 
city for such appreciation in the literature of other lan- 
guages. 

The development of literary appreciation during the sec- 
ondary school period through direct contact with outstand- 
ing works of literature, whether in English or in foreign lan- 
guages, is obviously a desirable objective. The extent to 
which this objective is valid for Latin is contingent upon the 
extent to which pupils are able to secure a truer apprecia- 
tion of the aesthetic qualities of the authors read through 
the original than is possible through translations. From a 
literary and artistic point of view it will scarcely be disputed 
that there is very rarely such a thing as an adequate transla- 
tion of a literary masterpiece. ‘In its happiest efforts trans- 
lation is but an approximation and its efforts are not always 
happy.”*° A full appreciation of the literary qualities of Ver- 
gil’s Aeneid, for example, is to be developed, if at all, through 
66 G, H. Lewes, Life of Goethe, Vol. Il, p. 229. 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 69 


direct contact with the poem in the language in which it is 
written. The practical question here involved is to what ex- 
tent secondary school pupils through a reading of the Aeneid 
in the original can develop a capacity for appreciating the 
metrical and other aesthetic qualities of the poem. Evidence 
of the development of this capacity may be limited for the 
ordinary young pupil to an increased ability to recognize 
the losses involved in the translation of a passage of Latin 
into English, whether that translation is his own or another’s, 
to distinguish between degrees of inadequacy in such trans- 
lations, and to respond to a particularly happy rendering. 

The Brown. scales,’ analogous to the Abbott-Trabue 
scales,°* have been prepared for the purpose of testing the 
effect of a year’s study of Vergil upon the development of 
general literary appreciation. These scales could not be com- 
pleted in time for use in the investigation. They will be avail- 
able, however, for teachers who are interested in measuring 
the attainment of this objective in their own classes. 

This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a 
whole by 67% of the teachers who answered the general ques- 
tionnaire. In the score card it was ranked respectively eigh- 
teenth, sixteenth, seventh and second for the four years of 
the course. 

Of those teachers who indicated in the general question- 
naire that they regarded this objective as valid, 26% con- 
sidered that results secured in their own schools were satis- 
factory. 

The Hahn study,’ made as a preliminary step to the con- 
struction of the scales mentioned above, shows that 92% of 
67 K. Brown, Scales for Measuring Growth in the Appreciation of English 
Poetry through the Study of Vergil. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Sec- 
tion 19, 

68 A. Abbott and M. R. Trabue, 4 Measurement of Ability to Judge 


Poetry, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College. 
69 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 


70 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


the teachers of Vergil whose opinions were secured considered 
this objective valid in the teaching of Vergil. Of these teach- 
ers 20% were satisfied with the results secured in their own 
schools. The two chief reasons given for the failure to secure 
satisfactory results were “lack of time” and “lack of cultural 
background on the part of the pupils.”” The Uhl study” shows 
that at the present time fourth-year Latin requires of the 
pupils more time for study than is required by any other sub- 
ject in any year of the secondary course. The significance of 
these facts will be discussed in the chapter on content. 

6. A greater appreciation of the elements of literary tech- 

mique employed in prose and verse. 

The cultivation of this appreciation through the study of 
Latin will depend upon the extent to which the pupil can be 
brought to recognize the use Latin authors make of literary 
technique in securing artistic effects and to attempt to secure 
similar effects in his translation of these authors. This in- 
volves the acquisition of some detailed knowledge of the ele- 
ments which constitute this technique, such as diction, 
rhythm and figures of speech. 

This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a 
whole by 42% of the teachers who answered the general ques- 
tionnaire. In the score card this objective was ranked respec- 
tively seventeenth, nineteenth, twelfth and ninth for the four 
years of the course. 

Of those teachers who indicated in the general question- 
naire that they regarded this objective as valid, 26% con- 
sidered that results being secured in their own schools were 
satisfactory. 

7. Improvement wm the literary quality of the pupil’s written 

English. 

This objective is closely connected with the two objectives 


70 W. L. Uhl, “How Much Time for Latin?”, The Classical Journal, X1X 
(January, 1924), pp, 215-221. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 14, 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 71 


last discussed. The cultivation of this ability through the 
study of Latin will depend upon the extent to which pupils in 
their oral and written translation recognize and employ the 
elements of literary style mentioned above and seek to secure 
similar effects in their own writing. 

This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a 
whole by 64% of the teachers who answered the general ques- 
tionnaire. In the score card it was ranked. respectively four- 
teenth, fourteenth, tenth and tenth for the four years of the 
course. 

Of those teachers who regarded this objective as valid, 
95% considered that results secured in their own schools 
were satisfactory. 

8. An elementary knowledge of the simpler general principles 
of language structure. 

Some knowledge of the simpler general principles of lan- 
scuage structure as exhibited in the Indo-European languages 
and some appreciation of the universality of grammatical 
ideas have educational value, apart from any immediately 
practical application of these principles to the learning of a 
foreign language or to a better understanding of English. 
The study of Latin grammar for the mastery of Latin itself, 
because of the fact that difference of function is regularly 
indicated in Latin by difference in form and the relation of 
form and function is thereby made clear, provides a pecu- 
iarly valuable basis for developing an appreciation of the 
extent to which all the languages commonly studied exhibit 
3 fundamental unity of structure. The extent to which the 
study of Latin grammar actually contributes to a knowledge 
of general language structure depends upon the extent to 
which pupils form the habit of recognizing the identity of 
crammatical principles common to Latin and English and of 
recognizing these same principles when they appear in the 
study of other languages. Every such identification furnishes 


72 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 

a fresh object lesson in the historical relationship of Indo- 
European peoples. Furthermore, grammatical ideas when 
viewed in their universal aspect furnish tangible evidence of 
the ultimate unity of the human race. The extent to which 
pupils gain this conception through Latin depends upon the 
extent to which stress is laid in the teaching of Latin gram- 
mar upon the logical and therefore universal character of 
grammatical ideas. 

This objective was regarded as valid for the course as a 
whole by 51% of the teachers who answered the general ques- 
tionnaire. In the score card it was ranked respectively seventh, 
seventh, sixteenth and seventeenth for the four years of the 
course. 

Of those teachers who indicated in the general questionnaire 
that they regarded this objective as valid, 40% considered 
that results secured in their own schools were satisfactory. 
Section 4. An Analysis of the Opinions of Present and Former 

Students of Latin as to Certain Values Arising 
from the Study of Latin 

The data employed in the evaluation of objectives in the 
preceding section included analyses of opinions expressed by 
teachers of Latin, education and psychology. Additional data 
have been secured bearing on the evaluation of certain of these 
objectives through the use of questionnaires sent to present 
and former students of Latin as follows: 

1. To fourth-year secondary school pupils who were com- 

pleting their fourth year of Latin. 

2.'T'o college freshmen who had.completed four years of 
Latin in school and were continuing the subject in col- 
lege. 

3.'To college graduates who replied to the O’Shea ques- 
tionnaire, and who had studied Latin for from one to 
eight years in school and college. 

In these questionnaires technical phases of the discussion 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 73 


were avoided and those addressed were asked simply to indi- 
cate the values which they believed they had secured from 
their study of Latin. 

The Grise study,’ based upon the answers returned by 
3,600 fourth-year high school pupils, contains a list of all 
the reasons assigned by these pupils for having continued 
the study of Latin for four years. In so far as the reasons 
here given relate to educational values they are also signifi- 
cant for the evaluation of the objectives concerned. The fol- 
lowing list includes the reasons given by the pupils as being 
chiefly responsible for their continuing the study of Latin 
for four years and the percentage of pupils who gave each 
of these reasons: 


I had to have Latin for college entrance......... 47 Yo 
Leen atin oe ped timetaN lish 3, 05. s0is « <te eee bias « AT Yo 
RUS DECIAH Vo MT VOCRDULATIY : als'e sce evs Cale was 29% 
éF NOTA NInA eh Arte, NED 16% 
~ ae LELELEUULT Gath aise e ce re eee Q% 
I believed that the study furnished good mental 
Pte UNE are toric Ves RE OAT) aa Ce AT Yo 
I believed four years’ study of the same subject 
SO OCHCHAN Hs Paw He Cie isch «! Meopatls voila tant ks 36% 
UE OUST OC ee ee 36% 
VOSS efter Was cat EO) ee ea 23% 
ey GAT Oma tct 1 ats baente Ac idte elie 6% 
ES ME AERAT RO MENe SC  cunitehaeinaae bit Hed 4% 
I found it helped in the study of other languages... 33% 
encom atin Trench... .. sissrstyrd wbil ole es 21% 
vt Reet VDALUIIS [in cao ssh > candi ts ray Ae: 11% 
Teachers or principal advised it ............... 22% 


I found it helped in acquiring good habits of study 21% 


71, C. Grise, “Content and Method in High School Latin,” a doctor’s 
dissertation at the George Peabody College for Teachers, 1924. See also 
Part II, Chapter III, Section 6, 


74 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Parents' or; guardian insistedy:.). <& wiih). see ae 19% 
Latin was easier than some other subjects........ 16% 
I had to have it for graduation from school...... 12% 
My special friends were taking Latin ........... 9% 
I expected: toiteach fatiniy. 1). 202 Mate aeons 6% 
Latin was my easiest subject...............8..%- A% 
Other reasons (ul sie. eta iw seca eee 5% 


The pupils were also asked to give the chief reasons why 
some of their friends who began the study of Latin with them 
had not continued the subject. The four chief reasons given 


were: 
They found atin too deneult <". 2. 97 eee 557% 
They did not like Latinoita..). ......) sos.) 24% 
Latin took too muchitimeisn.. »« «.. <1. 4. 2scehe eee 18% 
They considered Latin of little or no value....... 14% 


In the Swan study,” based upon answers returned by 505 
college freshmen from 24 colleges who were studying Latin 
for the fifth year, the reasons given and percentages are as 


follows: 
Pliked.. Latin’ os ih a ee RNs 57% 
Especially: -Vergil 4iscivie4 s/n eee 35 Yo 
“ Ciceros4 vate. tte eee 1% 
ZS Caesar:.4 diag i.e yee 3% 
I found at-helpful in ‘Englishes. «ie ae ee eee 48 Yo 
Especiallyinvocabulary.4....7. ae ee 24% 
< Cy Braemar ty) Vee OS aire 10% 
4 * sliterature ¢)). 41.2 ee 3% 
¢ Sie pellinm ¢°-- 24! eae ae 2% 
a * yhetorid Al eee py eer 1% 
I had to have it for college entrance ............ 45 Jo 


72 R. Swan, “Content and Method in High School Latin,” a master’s dis- 
sertation at Indiana University, 1924. See also Part II, Chapter III, Sec- 
tion 6, 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 75 
I found it helped me in the study of other languages 40% 


Mnceldiuy iis E renchavan.) ci Git een) at 26 7o 

i As Si an UR Mme sted Walger std sia sis 8% 

Hs i Greckame i tbyis at Ata ts Win «3 2% 

:, sve, (FPA IMUM. wie pitah teen. nba ld sey Q% 
Pree cbed! Ue Lea. Clr duatiterete atc! ects ch- &oncp pain oie 2 Te 
enCMerararmerincipaliamrised, Lb ict. bis bial ol sens ce Q4:%o 
Latin was easier for me than some other subjects... 24% 
Parente OP PUArCialy Misisted she. sg elec etstg a « 21% 
I had to have it for graduation from school....... 1 eG, 


The four chief reasons given as responsible for the fact 
that some of their friends who began the study of Latin with 
them had -not continued the subject were: 


ENevetoundiuatin TOodeioultytisiih.\ hile iinwk. 707 
ie veL nous DMs TIL NOG PraChiCal «4/52 ey. le ti tue 27 Yo 
Ais hooks LOOsMiUChAtIMCs WO LOsakih. fara he | Q4% 
Mine vedio Ou like Tahiti ay. sles Si cere SO Lee 20% 


The college graduates to whom the special questionnaire 
was sent were asked to indicate those values which they be- 
lieved they had actually secured from the study of high school 
Latin. There were 763 replies received. The values indicated 
and the percentages of those noting each of these values are: 


Value for the understanding and use of English 
Poricmierimedtrome matin .).)0 OME LUPIN 2A: 93% 


Value for the understanding of Latin words, 
phrases, abbreviations and quotations occurring in 


Cs mT Tee tHe RODE oe TAD Lia, 88% 


Value for the development of an historical perspec- 
tive and of a cultural background resulting from a 
knowledge of the facts relating to the life, litera- 
ture, history, institutions, mythology and religion 
Oop OCS UM eC ous U0 GU) CREE RE es NE oe a ea 65% 


76 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Value for learning other foreign languages ...... 64% 
Value for an understanding of English grammar, 
and of language structure in general ....../.... 63% 


Value for the spelling of English words derived from 
Tea Cr ea ess 0S ol rx ee ee 60% 


Value for general discipline resulting from the culti- 
vation of habits of accuracy, thoroughness, orderly 
procedure, perseverence and achievement ....... 55% 
Value for the understanding and use of actual Latin 
and of technical terms derived from Latin employed 
in the professions and vocations’ .)00. . am AUn 48 Yo 


Value for speaking and writing correct and effective 


Bnghishiyis hii. lolitas eens cso area sere 47 Yo 
Value for reading English of more than ordinary 
difficulty 20). Ee 3 Ee — 42% 


Value for general discipline resulting from training 
in logical analysis, in refiective thinking, and in the 
formation of correct. judgements, «:.\. 4 eae 36% 
Value for the appreciation of literary form and 
style in the Latin authors read, and in the literature 
of other languages, including English .......... 35% 


Those filling out the questionnaire were also asked to indi- 
cate those values which had proved especially important in 
their own experience. The seven values receiving the highest 
number of votes are in order: 


Value for the understanding and use of English words de- 
rived from Latin. 

Value for an understanding of English grammar, and of 
language structure in general. 

Value for the understanding of Latin words, phrases, ab- 
breviations and quotations occurring in English. 

Value for the development of an historical perspective and 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES ral 


of a general cultural background resulting from a knowl- 
edge of the facts relating to the life, literature, history, in- 
stitutions, mythology and religion of the Romans. 

Value for learning other foreign languages. 

Value for general discipline resulting from the cultivation 
of habits of accuracy, thoroughness, orderly procedure, 
perseverance and achievement. 

Value for the understanding and use of actual Latin and 
of technical terms derived from Latin employed in the pro- 
fessions and vocations. 


Those filling out the questionnaire were also asked to an- 
swer the question: “If you had a son or daughter entering 
high school next year, would you advise him or her to take 
up the study of Latin?” The answers given and the percent- 
ages are as follows: 


i oe R eee ee ang ow ote stele re, eam ia. ene 83% 
YEN TAT yao Beier aches, at 6 coh Canwest te ica 37% 
NT) ORIEN, Gee ee ESTAS iE PRU, PORN Zo 
Ayuia lifted @nOLy sits mene ree ih mere rhe haar A ete FTE, 2% 
ere Eee 216 Wa REE 8A Pel Oa Eee eR eee ras DRT 5% 


Those filling out this questionnaire were asked to comment 
freely on any changes in the teaching of high school Latin 
which they believed would make the course more valuable in 
any of the ways listed. The changes suggested are analyzed 
in the chapter on method. 


Section 5. The Relative Emphasis To Be Attached Year by 
Year to All Objectives Determined upon as Valid 


On the basis of the evidence presented in the preceding sec- 
tion, it is our opinion that most of the ultimate objectives 
examined are valid for all or a large proportion of the pupils 
who study Latin. Certain of the objectives are in the nature 
of the case valid only in the later years of the course and 


78 


two 


THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


of the objectives are in our opinion not valid for the 


secondary course.’* It is evident that the relative emphasis 
to be placed on the different objectives regarded as valid will 
vary in successive years of the school course. 

For practical purposes it has seemed desirable at this 


stage of our inquiry to present in simpler and more compact 
form a list of all the objectives, immediate and ultimate, 


which we consider valid for the secondary course as a whole. 
Accordingly related specific objectives have been combined 


into more general objectives. The list thus simplified follows: 


ite 


aS) 


OX 


Increased ability to read and understand Latin (Pri- 
mary Immediate Objective). 


. Increased understanding of those elements in English 


which are related to Latin (Instrumental and Applica- 
tion Objectives 2, 3, 6, 7 and 8). 


. Increased ability to read, speak and write icin (In- 


strumental and Application Objectives 4 and 5). 


. Increased ability to learn other foreign languages (In- 


strumental and Application Objective 9). 


. Development of correct mental habits (Disciplinary 


Objectives 1, 2 and 3). 


. Development of an historical and cultural background 


(Cultural Objectives 1, 2 and 4). 


. Development of right attitudes toward social situations 


(Cultural Objective 3). 


. Development of literary appreciation (Cultural Ob- 


jectives 5 and 6). 


. Elementary knowledge of the simpler general principles 


of language structure (Cultural Objective 8). 


73 As may be noted in the previous pages, the ultimate objectives we do 
not consider valid for the secondary course are: 
1. Ability to read new Latin after the study of the language in school 


or college has ceased. 


2. Increased ability to make formal logical analyses. 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 19 


10. Improvement in the literary quality of the pupil’s writ- 
ten English (Cultural Objective 7). 


THE FOUR-YEAR COURSE 


I. Immediate Objective 


The indispensable primary immediate objective which un- 
lerlies the entire process for each year of the course is pro- 
rressive development of power to read and understand Latin. 
Chis involves an increasing mastery of the elements of the lan- 
ruage, namely, vocabulary, forms and syntax. The relative 
mphasis to be attached to these elements year by year will 
lepend upon the contribution which they may make to the 
ibility to read and understand Latin or to the attainment of 
‘ertain of the ultimate objectives. The application of this 
»rinciple will be discussed in detail in the chapters on con- 
sent and method. 


II. Ultimate Objectives 


The following lists give the ultimate objectives we regard 
as valid for each successive year of the four-year course. 
The relative emphasis ordinarily to be attached to these ulti- 
mate objectives is indicated by the order in which they are 
given. 
First Year. 

1. Increased understanding of those elements in English 

which are related to Latin. 

Increased ability to read, speak and write English. 
. Development of an historical and cultural background. 
. Development of correct mental habits. 
Development of right attitudes toward social situations. 
_Increased ability to learn other foreign languages. 


ID oS 


. Elementary knowledge of the simpler general principles 
of language structure. 


80 


THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Second Year. 


. Increased understanding of those elements in English 


which are related to Latin. 


. Increased ability to read, speak and write English. 
. Development of an historical and cultural background. 


Development of correct mental habits. 


. Development of right attitudes toward social situations. 
. Increased ability to learn other foreign languages. 
. Elementary knowledge of the simpler general principles 


of language structure. 


Third Year. 


is 
. Development of an historical and cultural background. © 


Increased ability to read, speak and write English. 


. Development of correct mental habits. 
. Increased understanding of those elements in English 


which are related to Latin. 


. Development of right attitudes toward social situations. 
. Development of literary appreciation. 
. Increased ability to learn other foreign languages. 


Fourth Year. 


. Increased ability to read, speak and write English. 

. Development of an historical and cultural background, 

. Development of correct mental habits. 

. Development of literary appreciation. 

. Development of right attitudes toward social situations. 
. Increased understanding of those elements in English 


which are related to Latin. 


. Improvement in the literary style of the pupil’s written 


English. 


THE FIVE-YEAR COURSE 


The type of school we have in mind in making these recom- 


mendations is one in which the study of Latin is begun one 


AIMS OR OBJECTIVES 81 


rear earlier than in the present four-year secondary school 
‘course. 
I. Immediate Objective 
Sce statement regarding the primary immediate objective 
inder The Four-Year Course. 
II. Ultimate Objectives 
First Year. 
1. Increased understanding of those elements in English 
which are related to Latin. 
2. Increased ability to read, speak and write English. 
3. Development of an historical and cultural background, 


> 


. Development of correct mental habits. 


Cr 


. Development of right attitudes toward social situations. 
Sec ond, Third, Fourth and Fifth Years. 
See ultimate objectives listed under the first, second, third 


and fourth vears of The Four-Year Course. 
y 


THE SIX-YEAR COURSE 


The type of school we have in mind in making these recom- 
mendations is one in which the study of Latin is begun two 
years earlier than in the present four-year secondary school 
course. 

I. Immediate Objective 

See statement regarding the primary immediate objective 
under The Four-Year Course. 

II. Ultimate Objectives 
First Year. 

1. Increased understanding of those elements in English 

which are related to Latin. 

2. Development of an historical and cultural background. 

8. Development of correct mental habits. 

4. Development of right attitudes toward social situations. 


82 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Second Year. 

1. Increased understanding of those elements in Englisl 

which are related to Latin. 

2. Increased ability to read, speak and write English. 

3. Development of an historical and cultural background. 

4. Development of correct mental habits. 

5. Development of right attitudes toward social situations 
Third, Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Years. 

See objectives listed under the first, second, third anc 
fourth years of The Four-Year Course. 


CHAPTER IV 
Tue CoNTENT OF THE CouRSE IN SECONDARY LATIN 


Section 1. Introduction 


In the preceding chapter the immediate and ultimate objec- 
tives we regard as valid have been stated, and the extent to 
which these objectives are commonly attained under present 
conditions or are attainable under more favorable conditions 
of content and method has been indicated. 

This chapter is concerned with the problem of determining 
what content provides the most effectual means for the pro- 
gressive development of power to read and understand Latin’ 


and for attaining the ultimate objectives regarded as valid 
for the various years of the course. 


These two fundamental aims, namely, attainment of the 
immediate and ultimate objectives, should be concurrent and 
mutually supporting throughout the course from the very 
beginning of Latin all the way to the end. Without doubt 
Latin has been frequently so taught as to involve a conflict of 


‘interest between these two aims and a partial or even complete 


sacrifice of one for the supposed advantage of the other. Such 
an advantage, however, is in our opinion only apparent. Con- 


‘current development of both aims will result in a fuller attain- 


ment of each, while supposedly necessary exclusive attention 


1For the purpose of the present discussion it should be understood that 
by the reading of Latin is meant the comprehension of the thought in 
Latin, whether or not this is accompanied or followed by translation into 


English. While translation into adequate English of the thought com- 
_prehended has a special function in the development of ability to speak 


and write correct and effective English as an ultimate objective, it is our 


opinion that the contribution which translation makes to the comprehen- 
sion of Latin as Latin is slight under methods commonly used at present. 


84 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


to one will result in serious injury to both. Attainment of the 
immediate objectives is indispensable for attainment of the 
ultimate objectives, and attainment of the ultimate objec- 
tives furnishes the chief permanently valid motive as well as 
a sound basis for attainment of the immediate objectives.’ 
The continual interdependence of these two aims should be 
explicitly recognized in the content of the course and in the 
methods of instruction employed. For example, the reading 
material selected should be of such character as to provide the 
best basis for developing progressive power to read and un- 
derstand Latin and at the same time to make the largest 
possible contribution to attainment of those objectives which 
depend primarily on the thought-content, such as develop- 
ment of a general historical background and development of 
literary appreciation. Again, the vocabulary and syntax to 
be included and emphasized in the reading material for the 
earlier period should be such as to contribute directly to pro- 
gressive power to read and understand Latin and at the same 
time to furnish an adequate basis for a better understanding 
of related elements in English and for the learning of modern 
languages. Similarly, the methods employed in the comprehen- 
sion of the Latin sentence should be such as to contribute also 
to development of correct habits of reflective thinking, and 
the methods employed in the learning of vocabulary, forms 
and syntax should be such as are valid for the mastering of 
Latin itself, and for developing correct mental habits gener- 


ally. 


2It was shown, for example, in the Philadelphia controlled experiment, 
that classes which devoted the greater amount of time and attention to 
the development of certain ultimate objectives also made the highest 
scores in the Latin comprehension test. The greater interest aroused in 
the pupils and practice in associating Latin with English and English 
with Latin seem to have reacted favorably upon the mastering of Latin 
itself. 


CONTENT 85 


Section 2. Procedure 

The problem of framing recommendations regarding the 
content of the secondary course in Latin resolves itself into 
two complementary questions: 

1. What content appears to provide conditions most fav- 
orable for the fullest attainment of the objectives de- 
termined upon as valid? 

9. What reorganization of the present content should be 
made to ensure the fullest attainment of these objectives ? 

In securing data bearing on the problems of content we 
have generally used the same sources of information as were 
employed in the evaluation of objectives, namely, scientific 
studies, including tests and measurements, and analysis of 
opinion. 

Many of the special studies described in the preceding 
chapter provide data not only for evaluation of objectives 
but also for determination of content. The studies undertaken 
to discover the extent to which there are elements common to 
the study of Latin and to the various fields with which the 
ultimate objectives are concerned have provided material 
for the content of the course by furnishing definite informa- 
tion as to what those common elements are. For example, the 
Thorndike-Grinstead word count, which provides one basis 
for determining whether the study of English derivatives is 
a valid objective for Latin pupils, has also produced a defin- 
ite list of the words derived from Latin most frequently oc- 
curring in English and a list of the Latin words most import- 
ant for the interpretation of these English derivatives. The 
bearing of such data upon the question of content is direct 
and important. 

The results of the tests which were given for the purpose 
of measuring the extent to which certain ultimate objectives 


are commonly attained under present conditions of content 


86 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


were discussed in the preceding chapter. The results of the 
tests given for the purpose of measuring the degree to which 
pupils show progressive ability to read and understand 
Latin and gain progressive mastery of the elements of Latin 
under present conditions of content will be analyzed in this 
and the following chapter.*® 

All schools participating in any of the tests were asked to 
fill out special blanks with descriptions of the content and 
methods employed in teaching the pupils who were tested.* 
A study of the relation between results secured in the indi- 
vidual schools or classes and the content of the course in 
those schools has yielded very valuable information in regard 
to the most effective means of attaining the various objec- 
tives. 

Important data bearing on the content of the course are 
furnished by a study of the relations between scores made 
by the same pupils in tests given to measure proficiency in 
. the elements of Latin and in tests given to measure ability 
to comprehend or to translate Latin.’ Other similar studies 
show the relation between ability to comprehend Latin and 
the degree to which certain of the ultimate objectives are 
attained.°® 

In addition to the data secured from the tests and special 
studies we have sought to discover and analyze the opinion 
of a large body of experienced teachers of Latin as to what 
changes in the content of the course they regard as desirable. 
The chief sources used in securing this information have been: 

1. Part II of the comprehensive general questionnaire, to 

which repeated reference was made in the preceding 
chapter.’ 

8See also Part II, Chapter I, Section 2. 

4See Part II, Chapter I, Section 19. 

>See Part II, Chapter I, Section 8, 


6 See Part IT, Chapter I, Section 19. 
7 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. 


CONTENT 87 


aS) 


_ A questionnaire on changes desired in the reading con- 
tent of the Latin course, filled out by 115 teachers of sec- 
ondary Latin.* 

3. A questionnaire on changes desired in the reading con- 
tent of the Latin course, filled out by 107 students en- 
rolled in courses in the teaching of secondary Latin 
during the summer of 1923. Those comprising this group 
have in the main had less teaching experience than those 
in the preceding group.” 

4. A questionnaire on the present reading content of the 
Latin course and on changes desired in the reading con- 
tent, filled out by 166 teachers of secondary Latin in 
New England.” 

5. A questionnaire on changes desired in the reading con- 
tent of the Latin course, filled out by 109 teachers of 
secondary Latin who were members of the Classical As- 
sociation of the Atlantic States.” 

6. A questionnaire on changes desired in the reading con- 

tent of the Latin course, filled out by 71 teachers of 

secondary Latin in Nebraska.” 


— 


. A questionnaire on changes desired in the reading con- 
tent of the Latin course, filled out by 157 teachers of 
secondary Latin in Ilinois.** 

8. Ballots on changes desired in the reading content of the 


&See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. See also “The Classical Investiga- 
tion: The Work of the First Two Years,” The Classical Journal, XVIII 
(June, 1923), pp. 564-565. 

9See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 

10“Jatin in the Secondary Schools of New England,” a special report 
submitted by H. E. Burton, Chairman of the Curriculum Committee of 
the New England Classical Association. See Part II, Chapter III, Sec- 
tion 5. 

11 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 

12 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 

13 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 


88 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Latin course, taken at six meetings of classical teachers 
held during the school year 1922-1923," 

9. Reports of round-table discussions on changes desired 
in the reading content of the Latin course at nine meet- 
ings of classical teachers held during the school year 
1922-1923. Teachers of both college and secondary 
Latin participated in these round-table discussions. 

10. A question blank on content and method, filled out by 
3600 students who were completing their fourth year of 


15 


Latin in secondary schools,*® and by 505 students who 


had studied Latin for four years in secondary schools 
and were studying freshman Latin in college.*® 

11. A questionnaire on the content of college courses in ele- 
mentary Latin and on changes recommended in the con- 
tent of secondary Latin, filled out by 75 instructors in 
these courses." 

In order to secure further information with reference to 
the present content of the course in secondary Latin, we have 
made use of the following additional sources: 

1. Preliminary information given in the comprehensive 

general questionnaire.*® 

2. The Colthurst’® and Jones* studies, based on returns 


14 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 

15 F, C. Grise, “Content and Method in High School Latin,” a doctor’s 
dissertation at the George Peabody College for Teachers, 1924. See also 
Part II, Chapter ITI, Section 6. 

16 R, Swan, “Content and Method in High School Latin,” a master’s dis- 
sertation at Indiana University, 1924. See also Part II, Chapter ITI, 
Section 6. 

17 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 

18 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. 

19 See C. Colthurst, “The Content of Latin Courses in a Number of North 
Central States,’ a master’s dissertation at the University of Chicago, 
1923. See also Part II, Chapter III, Section 5, and “The Classical In- 
vestigation: The Work of the First Two Years,” The Classical Journal 
XVIII (June, 1923), pp. 562-563. 

20 A, R, Jones, “The Amount and Kind of Latin Read in the Secondary 


CONTENT 89 


from questionnaires on the reading content of the Latin 
course in 445 schools in Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Mis- 
souri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Ohio 
and Pennsylvania. 

3. A study of the content of the Latin course in grades be- 
low the ninth in 40 schools.* 

4. A detailed questionnaire on the content of the Latin 
course in 14 selected junior high schools, prepared in co- 
operation with an investigation being conducted for the 
Commonwealth Fund under the direction of James M. 
Glass of the State Department of Education, Harris- 
pune ba...) 

_ A questionnaire on the reading content of the course in 
Latin in 36 schools in England of the type most nearly 
comparable to the four-year secondary schools of the 
United States.” 

6. The Adams study, based on returns from a question- 
naire filled out by 178 colleges on the minimum reading 
content required for 1, 2, 3 and 4 units of entrance 
credit in Latin.™ 

4. The Pound and Helle study, based on an analysis of 273 


local examinations (question papers) in Latin secured 


OX 


from typical secondary schools.” 


Schools of Pennsylvania and Ohio in 1921-1922,” a master’s dissertation 
at the University of Pittsburgh, 1923. See also Part II, Chapter III, Sec- 
tion 5. 

21See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 20. 

22 J, M. Glass, Curriculum Practices in the Junior High School. 

22 See “The Classics in England,” a special report by I. L. Kandel, Part 
m1, Chapter I. 

24See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 15. 

251. G. Pound and R. H. Helle, “An Investigation of the Objectives in 
the Teaching of Latin,” a joint masters’ dissertation at the Ohio State 
University, 1923. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 13. 


BOs THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Section 3. Examination of the Present Content of the Course 
in Relation to the Attainment of the Objectives 
Determined upon as Valid 


The evidence furnished by the tests and special studies and 
confirmed by the judgment of teachers indicates that the 
present content of the four-year Latin course as commonly 
found in the schools is too extensive in amount or too difficult 
in kind, or both, to provide a suitable medium for the satis- 
factory attainment of the objectives which were determined 
upon in the preceding chapter as valid for the course in sec- 
ondary Latin. 

The Uhl studies,*® based upon reports from 85,000 pupils 
distributed through all four years of the course, show that 
the average daily amount of time outside the class now de- 
voted by Latin pupils to the preparation of their lessons is 
considerably greater in each year of the course than is re- 
quired for any other subject in the secondary school, and that 
even first-year Latin requires more time for preparation than 
any other subject in any year of the course. The Grise 
and Swan studies*’ show an even greater average daily ex- 
penditure of time than that shown in the Uhl studies. The 
Uhl studies show further that the proportion of pupils whe 
devote daily an average of an hour and a half or more to the 
preparation of a Latin lesson is greater than in the case of 
any other college preparatory subject, and that this pro- 
portion increases with each year’s study of Latin. 

Even with this expenditure of time there is ample evidence 
that really satisfactory results are not at present being 


26 W. H. Uhl, “How Much Time for Latin?” The Classical Journal, XIX 
(January, 1924), pp. 215-221; “The Time Element in High Schools,’ 
School Review, XXXII (February, 1924), pp. 105-121. See also Part II 
Chapter IV, Section 14. 

27 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 6. 


CONTENT 91 


secured in the attainment of either the immediate or the ulti- 
mate objectives. Cumulative evidence from many different 
sources indicates that this situation is largely due to con- 
gestion arising from introduction into the course of too many 
formal elements, especially during the first year, too early 
introduction of the first classical author to be read, failure to 
include in the course abundant easy reading material for 
the purpose of developing early the pupil’s ability to read 
Latin as Latin, prescription of too large an amount of clas- 
sical Latin to be read intensively, lack of sufficient variety 
in the choice of reading material, and failure to give adequate 
emphasis to attainment of the ultimate objectives. 

Evidence as to the extent to which the immediate objectives 
are being attained is furnished by the results of the Latin 
tests which were run with thousands of pupils in each year 
of the course to measure progress in certain fundamental 
Latin attainments, in ability to translate Latin sentences and 
to answer questions on the thought-content of Latin para- 
graphs. 

The tests in Latin vocabulary, verb-forms and syntax re- 
quired a knowledge of only the vocabulary, forms and syntax 
commonly included in the first year’s work in Latin.* Fur- 
thermore, three of the four tests on forms and syntax involved 
a functional and not a formal knowledge of these elements, 
while the fourth involved a formal knowledge of the rules of 
syntax. The Brueckner study” is based on these tests, 
namely, the Henmon Vocabulary Test, the Tyler-Pressey 
Test in Verb-Forms, the Pressey Test in Latin Syntax along 
with the Godsey Diagnostic Test in Latin Composition, and 
the Henmon Test in Sentence Translation scored on the unit- 
28 See Part II, Chapter I, Sections 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. 


291... J. Brueckner, “The Status of Certain Basic Latin Skills,’ Journal 
of Educational Research, 1X (May, 1924), pp. 390-402, 


92 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


credit basis of the author and also on the partial-credit basis 
devised by the Investigating Committee.*° The average per- 
centages of attainment for the country as a whole are given 
in the following table. While they show an almost unbroken 
improvement from semester to semester, the averages attained 


during the first two years on first-year material are low. 


FROM THE BRUECKNER STUDY 


Percentages of attainment made at the end of each semester for seven successive 
semesters of the high school course 


SEMESTERS 
TESTS 
Tr i). TO ov: aa ve 
Latin Vocabulary (Henmon) 66.5 | 77.5 | 84.0 | 88.5 | 91.1 | 93.2 | 93.1. 
Verb-Forms (Tyler-Pressey) 51.3 | 58.4 | 59.5 | 65.3 |75.3 | 83.7 | 82.0. 
Syntax (Pressey) “47.1 | 48.6 | 59.8 | 61.2 | 72.4 | 75.6 | 79.5 _ 
Composition (Godsey) 41.2 | 47.5 | 56.3 59.7 71.2 69.0 | 77.5 . 
Rules of Syntax (Godsey) 55.7 | 63.6 | 73.0 | 78.7 | 85.0 | 84.4 | 90.4 | 
Sentence Translation (unit-credit) 25.5 | 32.5 | 39.0 | 47.5 | 52.0 | 58.0 | 56.5 © 


Sentence Translation (partial-credit) || 41.5 | 54.2 | 64.8 | 73.0 | 78.4 | 83.3 82.0 


On such of these tests as were also used in special state sur- : 
veys conducted in Iowa,** Michigan* and Mississippi** the | 
medians reported are slightly lower than those established | 
for the country as a whole. 

A study of the correlation between the scores made by 
pupils who took all these Latin tests indicates that for 
these pupils no significant relation is discovered to exist be- 


30D, S. White, “Partial Credit vs. Unit Credit in Scoring a Translation 

Test,’ Part II, Chapter I, Section 3. . 
811, Byrne, “Latin Tests in Iowa High Schools,” University of Iowa Ex- 

tension Bulletin No. 92 (July 1, 1923). 

32C. Woody, “The Ullman-Kirby and Godsey Latin Tests, and the Carr 

English Vocabulary Tests,” Bulletin No, 56 (May 21, 1923) and “Report 

of Latin Investigation in Various High Schools of Michigan,” Bulletin 
No. 64 (March 31, 1924), of the Bureau of Educational Reference and 

Research of the University of Michigan. 

83 See Part II, Chapter I, Section 1. 


CONTENT 93 


tween knowledge of the rules and ability to translate, while 
a high correlation is found between the scores made by the 
same pupils in the tests on functional syntax and on sentence 
translation.** 

The Ullman-Kirby test,®® which was run with several thou- 
sand Latin pupils in each year of the course, was designed to 
test the ability of pupils to answer questions on the thought- 
content of Latin paragraphs increasing in difficulty and con- 
forming to the vocabulary and style of the authors com- 
monly read in successive years of the course. The rise in 
median scores from semester to semester indicates a steady 
growth in this ability. There is no way, however, of determin- 
ing whether or not the pupils taking the test arrived at the 
answers they gave by reading the Latin as Latin. 

The question of the manner in which pupils attack a Latin 
sentence is primarily one of method. However, the question 
also has a direct bearing on the determination of content. If 
the development of power to read Latin as Latin is regarded 
as a valid objective, one of the most important criteria to be 
employed in the selection of content is the potential capacity 
of any particular content to serve as a medium for develop- 
ing this power. 

We have repeatedly stated our conviction that the primary 
immediate objective in the teaching of Latin is the progres- 
sive development of power to read and understand Latin. 
This means training the pupil from the first to get the thought 
in the Latin order and directly from the Latin itself instead 
of backwards and indirectly through the translation. This 
definition of reading has long been generally accepted, at 
least in theory, and has found expression in the reports of 


341, J. Brueckner, “The Status of Certain Basic Latin Skills,” Journal 
of Educational Research, 1X (May, 1924), pp. 390-402. 
85See Part II, Chapter I, Section 2. 


94 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


various competent bodies.*° The following statement, taken 
from the Report of the Commission on College Entrance Re- 
quirements,”’ appears in the regular announcements of the 
College Eittrance Examination Board** and in many college 
catalogues: 

“From the outset particular attention should be given to 
developing the ability to take in the meaning of each word, 
—and so, gradually, of the whole sentence,—just as it 
stands; the sentence should be read and understood in the 
order of the original, with full appreciation of the force of 
each word as it comes, so far as this can be known or inferred 
from that which has preceded and from the form and the posi- 
tion of the word itself.” 

That this view is in general accepted also by secondary 
teachers is indicated by the fact that about 75% of the teach- 
ers who filled out the general questionnaire recommended the 
use of methods directed to developing the pupil’s ability to 
take in the thought of the Latin sentence as it stands, while 

about 25% recommended training the pupil in purely analy- 
tical methods of procedure. 


36 For example, in the Report of the Committee of Twelve, published in 
the Proceedings of the American Philological Association, XXX (1899) 
v: “The student should be carefully trained to take in the meaning of 
the sentence in the order in which it stands, and before translating.” On 
this point see also the Report of the Committee of Ten of the National 
Education Association (1894), 70-71: “The student should be taught to 
regard translation not as a means of finding out what his author has 
said, but as, on the one hand, a way of making it clear to his instructor 
that he has understood and, on the other, an exercise in expression,—a 
literary exercise,—in his own tongue. And finally it should be shown him 
that, even on the most practical grounds, to attempt to find out the 
meaning of a Latin sentence through translating it (as the common way 
is) is an operation almost sure to miscarry.” 

87 See Proceedings of the American Philological Association, XLI (1910), 
exxxVii-cxi, 


38See “Suggestions concerning Preparation” in Document 101 of the — 


College Entrance Examination Board (August 1, 1921), p. 27. 


CONTENT 95 


That an analytical process is actually followed by the 
majority of Latin students in secondary schools and colleges 
is shown in the Grise and Swan studies.*®? More than 60% of 
the fourth- and fifth-year students reporting on this question 
indicate that in their attack upon a Latin sentence they use 
some such method as this: “I look first for the subject, and 
translate that; then for the verb, and translate that; then 
for the object, and translate that; and then fit in the rest of 
the sentence,” while less than 20% indicate that they use 
some such method as this: “I read each sentence completely 
through in Latin, trying to grasp the meaning of each word- 
group in the Latin order, and then translate the sentence as a 
whole,” and about 10% indicate that they try to read the 
Latin for the thought without any attempt to translate it. 

Judd and Buswell conclude from their investigation,* 
based upon a photographic study of eye-movements of four- 
teen pupils, that “analytical types of reading are universal 
and of such an order as to make it evident throughout that 
these students have not learned to read Latin” (page 126). 
To quote further: “Latin students are not taught to read. 
They are trained only to look at words. Not only so but they 
are so trained to look at words that it is quite impossible to 
find any system in their looking. There seem to be no mental 
devices in their experience for disentangling a complex of 
Latin words” (page 187). The fourteen pupils whose eye- 
movements were registered in this study were selected as the 
best third-year Latin pupils from seven high schools in and 
near Chicago, and the material they were asked to read 
consisted of fairly simple passages from Eutropius and Cae- 
sar. While it may be doubted whether evidence based on a 


89See Part II, Chapter III, Section 6. 

40C, H. Judd and G. T. Buswell, “Silent Reading: A Study of Various 
Types,” Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 23, University of 
Chicago Press (1922). 


96 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


particular test of such a small number of pupils warrants so 
sweeping a conclusion as to Latin students generally, the evi- 
dence should be accepted as valid within the limits of the ex- 
periment. ! . ! 

The entire available evidence from various sources seems to 
be fairly conclusive that pupils studying Latin in secondary 
schools have not succeeded in developing proper methods of 
reading Latin as Latin. It is our opinion that the common ten- 
dency on the part of the pupils to follow the line of least 
resistance in their attack upon a Latin sentence is largely 
due to our failure to provide early in the course for sufficient 
practice with easy reading material and to emphasize the 
functional rather than the formal aspect of the elements of 
the language.** 

The results of the tests to measure progress in attainment 
of the ultimate objectives analyzed in the preceding chapter 
show in general a less degree of attainment than is secured in 
the case of the immediate objectives. That these results can 
be improved through the study of Latin and that failure to 
develop them is mainly or wholly due to the lack of time and 
attention definitely devoted to their attainment is clearly 


41“With respect to the organization of materials and methods of teach- 
ing the Committee desires to emphasize the importance of making actual 
experience rather than formal memory the primary basis of the pupil’s 
learning. In particular this means: (1) that in the learning of vocabulary, 
inflection and syntax, far greater emphasis be placed on practice in ap- 
plication and less emphasis on the formal study of words, paradigms and 
rules; (2) that in the organization of materials, especially during the 
earlier stages, far more time and energy be devoted to practice in the 
use of vocabulary, inflectional forms and principles of syntax, and less 
time and energy to the formal study of those elements. This second 
recommendation should mean a great reduction in the formal study of 
inflections and syntax in the first year of Latin study, but a great in- 
crease in the relative amount of practice in use.” From the Report of 
the Committee on Classical Languages of the Commission of the National 
Education Association for the Reorganization of Secondary Education. 


CONTENT 97 


shown by the results of the controlled experiments. In each of 
the controlled experiments those groups of pupils which were 
given definite training in applying to other fields the facts, 
processes, methods and habits developed in the study of Latin 
showed a marked superior growth over the groups to which 
no such training was given. 

Attention has already been called to the low standard of 
English accepted in class-room translations and to its rela- 
tion to the development of ability to speak and write correct 
and effective English. It is our opinion that this low stand- 
ard of class-room English is due in part to the attempt to 
cover too much ground and in part to the common class-room 
practice of using translation as the chief if not the only 
method of discovering whether pupils have prepared their 
assignments in reading. However high their own standards of 
class-room translation may be, most teachers find it a prac- 
tical impossibility to secure generally from their pupils a 
“good, idiomatic English version” of the ordinary daily 
reading assignment. Bad English is common enough in all 
our school studies, but it is not therefore tolerable for use in 
translating Latin. 

The evidence drawn from the tests and special studies with 
respect to the degree of success with which the various objec- 
tives are attained is confirmed by the judgment of teachers. 
But as has already been pointed out, the estimates of teach- 
ers on this point are to be regarded as on the whole too 
favorable. Thus, for example, only 21% of the teachers*’ 
filling out the general questionnaire regarded as unsatisfac- 
tory the results secured in the progressive development of 
power to read Latin. Yet a majority of the teachers expressed 


42 Not all of the 1150 teachers who filled out the general questionnaire 
answered every question. The percentages given in this chapter are based 
in each case upon the number answering the particular question under 
discussion. 


98 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


dissatisfaction with the extent to which most of the ultimate 
objectives were being attained. Thus 75% regarded as un- 
satisfactory the results secured in developing literary appre- 
ciation; about 60% regarded as unsatisfactory the results in 
developing an historical and cultural background, in develop- 
ing good English through adequate translation, and in devel- 
oping a knowledge of general language structure. From 437% 
to 50% regarded as unsatisfactory the results secured in 
developing desirable mental habits and in the ability to read 
English; 40% considered that neither a knowledge of clas- 
sical allusions nor an understanding of the actual Latin oc- 
curring in English was being satisfactorily developed ; while 
from 23% to 35% were dissatisfied with the ability of pupils 
to apply Latin to the learning of the elements of English or 
to the mastering of foreign languages. The evidence drawn 
from results of the tests is particularly conclusive in the case 
of this last mentioned ability. It indicates that the results 
actually secured in this field are not as great as has been 
commonly believed. 

The evidence from all sources indicates that the great- 
est need for reorganization of content is in the historical, 
cultural and appreciative fields. For example, the teachers 
of Vergil whose pupils, as has already been shown, are de- 
voting an amount of time to the preparation of their lessons 
greater than is given to any other subject in any year, while 
practically unanimous in their opinion that literary apprecia- 
tion is a valid and attainable objective in the fourth year of 
the course, say that they cannot find sufficient time to devote 
to the attainment of this objective.** Furthermore, 93% of 
the teachers filling out the general questionnaire expressed 
the belief that the Latin reading material should be so taught 
as to contribute to the attainment of the historical-cultural 
objectives, although 85% expressed the opinion that the 
43 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 


CONTENT 99 


present reading content of the course does not provide suffi- 
ciently for this purpose, and 967 expressed the opinion that, 
with present amount and kind of content, supplementary 
material in English should be included in the course.™ 

The general conclusions we have reached as to the relative 
degree to which certain objectives of the study of Latin are 
attained in the country as a whole are confirmed by the results 
of a special state survey conducted in the State of New York. 
The Arms-Bogart-Morrison study,*® based upon the answer 
papers written by 15,364 second-year Latin pupils in the 
Regents examination given in the secondary schools in June, 
1922, shows that of the immediate objectives a knowledge of 
the elements: ranks lowest in attainment,*® while translation 
at sight ranks slightly higher than translation of passages 
prescribed in the syllabus.*” The study also shows that of the 
two ultimate objectives explicitly recognized in the exami- 
nation (the understanding of derivatives and a knowledge of 
the historical background), the first was attained to a rea- 
sonably satisfactory degree, while the average made on those 
questions relating to the second was the lowest for any im- 
mediate or ultimate objective represented in the examination 
questions.*® It should be noted in this connection that the 
44 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. 
45S, D. Arms, E. E. Bogart and J. C. Morrison, “Results in Latin: First 
Two Years,” Bulletin No. 773 of the University of the State of New 
York (January 1, 1923). 
46 The average percentile mark on vocabulary was 57.2, on forms 57.4, 
and on syntax 57.16. 
47The average mark on sight translation was 74,13 and on prescribed 
translation was 72.66. Three possible explanations are offered by the 
authors of the report for the higher score on sight translation, namely: 
growth in the ability of pupils to get the thought from a connected Latin 
text; the selection of passages for sight translation relatively easier than 
the passages from the prescribed text; and greater leniency in the rating 
of sight passages. 


48 The average mark on derivatives was 73.5 and on historical back- 
ground was 51.6. 


100 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Latin syllabus of the State of New York contains specific 
prescriptions for the teaching of English derivatives through- 
out the first two years. The contrast in the averages secured 
in these two portions of the examination confirms our convic- 
tion that adequate attainment of any objective depends upon 
the introduction of definite material and methods appropriate 
for the attainment of that objective. The desirability of in- 
cluding in each year of the course material both in Latin and 
in English which will contribute definitely to the pupil’s 
knowledge of historical background seems clear.*® 

Entirely in harmony with this evidence is the general judg- 
ment of psychologists that automatic realization of the 
values implicit in Latin cannot be counted on to any large 
extent and that time must be found for the introduction of 
appropriate material and the use of appropriate methods in 
order to secure the satisfactory attainment of any of the 
ultimate objectives. 

It is our opinion that if pupils are to make adequate pro- 
gress in development of power to read Latin, the too great 
relative emphasis now placed upon the formal study of these 
elements of Latin must be replaced by practice in applying 
these elements directly in the reading of fairly easy well- 
graded material. It is also our opinion that if the majority 
of one-year, two-year and three-year Latin pupils are to 
realize values commensurate with the time devoted to the 
study of Latin, time must be provided early in the course for 


49“Further, from the first, the reading lessons should, as far as possible, 
deal with themes distinctly classical, especially Roman legends, biogra- 
phies, anecdotes and historic events. A knowledge of some of the great 
personages and dramatic events in Roman history ought to be required 
of all our pupils. A course of reading in English on such themes should be 
outlined, and the reading should be exacted of the pupils. The reading 
of appropriate poems, stories, etc., in English should be encouraged.” 
From the Report of the Committee on Classical Languages of the Com- 
mission of the National Education Association for the Reorganization of 
Secondary Education. 


CONTENT 101 


the introduction of specific material upon which to base the 
definite training of Latin pupils in applying to related fields 
the facts, processes, methods and habits acquired in Latin. 

The conclusion drawn from results of the tests as to the 
necessity for changes is confirmed by the specific recom- 
mendations of teachers. Seventy-five per cent of the teachers 
answering the general questionnaire expressed the opinion that 
defective organization of the Latin course is mainly responsi- 
ble for failure to secure satisfactory attainment of the objec- 
tives regarded as valid, while only 19% ascribed the unsatis- 
factory results to the lack of a clear definition of objectives 
:n the minds of the teachers.°° Eighty-four per cent of the 
teachers expressed the opinion that, if they were free to do 
so, they would modify the present course. Of those expressing 
this opinion 97% indicated their belief that the course so 
modified would provide an adequate basis for continued read- 
ing of Latin in college, and 84% expressed the belief that the 
present college entrance requirements should be correspond- 
ingly modified. 

Of the teachers filling out the general questionnaire 91% 
would read some easy or “made” Latin before taking up the 
first classical author, and 97% of these would have this ma- 
terial deal mainly with classical themes. Of the teachers who 
expressed a preference for Caesar as the first classical author 
to be read in the course, as most of them did, 54% would 
begin Caesar in the fourth semester or later, while 427 
would begin Caesar in the third semester, and 4% in the sec- 
ond semester.® Eighty per cent of these teachers state that 
they would read less Caesar than they do at present. Of the 


50See Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. 

51“The Committee believes that better results will be gained if the con- 
tinuous reading of the unmodified text of Caesar is postponed to the be- 
ginning of the fourth half-year.” From the report of the Committee on 
Classical Languages of the Commission of the National Education Asso- 
ciation for the Reorganization of Secondary Education. 


102 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


teachers who would include Cicero and Vergil in the course, 
as most of them would, 56% would read less Cicero than they 
do at present, while 52% would during the fourth year read 
Latin somewhat less in amount than six books of Vergil. 

Of the teachers filling out the special questionnaire’ on 
changes desired in the reading content of the Latin course, 
93% stated that, if they were free to do so, they would make 
changes in the kind, amount or order of the material read in 
the present standard course. Ninety-six per cent would read a 
considerable amount of easy Latin before taking up the first 
classical author, 15% would begin the reading of the first 
classical author at the beginning of the third semester or 
earlier, 80% about the middle or end of the third semester, 
and 55% at the beginning of the fourth semester or later. 
Sixty-five per cent of these teachers would reduce the amount 
of classical Latin reading material included in the present 
standard course. 

A tabulation of results of the questionnaire” on reading 
content, which was filled out during the summer of 1923 by 
teachers and students taking courses in the teaching of Latin, 
shows that 88% would make some changes in reading content 
of the present Latin course; 90% would read a considerable 
amount of easy Latin before taking up the first classical 
author; 19% would take up the first classical author at the 
beginning of the third semester or earlier, 38% at about the 
middle or end of the third semester, and 43% at the beginning 
of the fourth. Sixty-nine per cent would read less Caesar, 
387 would read less Cicero, and 29% would read less Vergil. 

An analysis of 71 replies to a questionnaire®® sent out to 
teachers of secondary Latin in Nebraska shows that 96% of 
those answering would make changes, if they felt free to do 
so, in the kind, amount or order of the material read in the 


52See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5, 
53 See Part LI, Chapter III, Section 5. 


CONTENT 103 


present Latin course; that 62% would reduce the minimum 
reading requirements; that of those who would read Caesar 
16% would take up Caesar in the third semester, and 8476 in 
the fourth semester or later. 

The results of a ballot®* taken at the meeting of the Classi- 
cal Section of the New York Teachers’ Association held 
November 30, 1922, show that 97% of the teachers voting 
would make changes, if they felt free to do so, in their present 
course ;°° that 84% would reduce the amount of reading re- 
quired in the second year; 10% the amount in the third year, 
and 3% the amount in the fourth year; that of those who 
would read Caesar 26% would begin the reading in the third 
semester and 74% in the fourth semester; that 877% would 
read a considerable amount of easy Latin before taking up 
the first classical author; and that 88% believe that three 
semesters should be devoted to the forms and syntax usually 
included in a first-year book. 

The results of a ballot®’ taken at a meeting of the New 
Jersey Classical Association held October 28, 1922, show 
that 95% of the teachers voting would make changes, if they 
felt free to do so, in their present Latin course; that 787% 
would reduce their present minimum reading requirements ; 
that of those who would read Caesar 14% would begin the 
reading in the third semester and 86% in the fourth semes- 
ter; and that "9% favor simplification of the college entrance 
examination in Latin composition. 

An analysis of the answers returned by 109 teachers of 
secondary Latin to a questionnaire sent to the members of the 
54See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 

55 For the content of the present course see the New York State Syllabus 
for Ancient Languages (1919). 

86 The New York State syllabus prescribes an amount of required read- 
ing in the third year equivalent to five orations of Cicero, and in the 


fourth year the equivalent of five books of Vergil’s Aeneid. 
37 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 


104 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Classical Association of the Atlantic States™ shows that 89% 
desire some change in the standard course; 48% would reduce 
the amount of reading, 86% would read ‘‘easy Latin” before 
taking up the first classical author; 48% would take up the 
first classical author at the beginning of the third semester or 
earlier, 833% at about the middle or end of the third semes- 
ter, and 18% at the beginning of the fourth semester or 
later.”® : 

The Burton study,” based upon replies to a questionnaire 
sent to the teachers of secondary Latin in New England, 
shows that 42% of the teachers replying believe that they 
would secure better results if the college entrance require- 
ments should be changed so as to place the emphasis upon the 
time to be given to the study of Latin rather than upon the 
amount of Latin read. Of the 58% favoring a prescription as 
to amount many teachers think the present amount is exces- 
sive. The report adds: “With a smaller requirement more 
time could be given to drill, to sight reading, and to literary 
values.”” They especially regard the requirement for the sec- 
ond and fourth years as excessive; for the second year, be- 
cause the pupils ‘fare not ready for Caesar.” To quote again 
from this report: ‘One gets the impression that few teachers, 
except those in schools having four and a half-, five- or six- 


58 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 

59 The form of the initial question asked was: “Do you desire any changes 
in the Standard Course (Beginners’ Book: Caesar B.G., 1-4; Cicero, Cat. 
1-4, Archias, Manilian Law; Aeneid, 1-6)?” This question differed in one 
important particular from the question asked in the general question- 
naire and the other special questionnaires and ballots analyzed above, all 
of which contained the clause, “If you were free from limitations imposed 
by college entrance requirements, scholarship examinations, official courses 
of study, text-book adoptions and like considerations.” 

60“Tatin in the Secondary Schools of New England,” a special report 
submitted by H. E. Burton, Chairman of the Curriculum Committee of 
the New England Classical Association. See Part II, Chapter III, Sec- 
tion 5. 


CONTENT 105 


year courses, believe that the average pupil is ready to begin 
the reading of Caesar when the reading of Caesar 1s begun.”’ 
Slightly over 50% of the teachers answering the New Eng- 
land questionnaire expressed the belief that examination in 
advanced composition for admission to college should be 
omitted. 

A summary” of replies received from 157 teachers of sec- 
ondary Latin in Illinois shows that of those who would read 
Caesar 3% would take up Caesar at the beginning of the third 
semester, 4% during the third semester, and 93% at the be- 
ginning of the fourth semester ; that 94% would reduce the 
amount of reading included in the present standard course 
for the second year, 89% the amount for the third year, and 
88% the amount for the fourth year. 

With reference to the amount of emphasis to be placed upon 
the technical phases of instruction the judgment of teachers 
is equally clear. Eighty per cent of the teachers filling out the 
general questionnaire think that the technical aspects of the 
study of Latin in secondary schools are commonly over- 
emphasized to the neglect of the cultural aspects. Seventy- 
five per cent believe that too much syntax is commonly in- 
cluded in the first year’s work, and of these 99% recommend 
the postponement of some rules and principles until the sec- 
ond year, 83% until the third year and 55% until the fourth 
year, while 50% would omit from the secondary course en- 
tirely some rules and principles now commonly included in the 
first year’s work.” Similarly, 63% of the teachers filling out 


61See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 

62 On this point compare the following statement from the Report of the 
Committee on Classical Languages of the Commission of the National 
Education Association on the Reorganization of Secondary Education: 
“Too many things are crowded at present into the first year of Latin 
study, especially in the field of syntax. As a result, there is not time for 
the requisite drill, especially toward the close of the year. New syntactical 
subjects crowd so rapidly upon the pupil’s attention that no one subject 


106 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


the general questionnaire believe that too many forms are : 
commonly included in the first year’s work, and all of them | 
would postpone some of these forms until the second year, 
63% until the third year and 37% until the fourth year, 
while 41% would omit from the secondary course entirely 
some forms now commonly included in the first year’s work. 
Stenographic reports of round-table discussions conducted 
at the meetings of the Classical Association of New England, 
the Kentucky Classical Association, the Southern Section of 
the Classical Association of the Middle West and South, and 
the Classical Association of Maryland show a general trend 
of positive opinion in favor of the following points: (1) sim- 
plification of the work of the first year; (2) provision for 
abundant reading of suitably graded material before the first 
classical author is taken up; (3) postponement of the first 
classical author until the fourth semester; and (4) reduc- 
tion in the amount of reading prescribed and in general less 
emphasis upon quantity and more attention to quality. Thus, 
the Kentucky Classical Association recommended a reduc- 
tion of amount in the second and third years. At the meeting 
of the Southern Section of the Classical Association of the 
Middle West and South reductions were urged in every year 
ef the course. At the meeting of the New England Classical 
Association a large majority favored a proposed change in 
college entrance requirements which would involve the study 
of Latin five hours a week for four years, and admission to 
college through the comprehensive examination or by certi- 
ficate. At the meeting of the Classical Association of Mary- 
land reduction in amount was urged by every speaker who 
participated in the discussion. | 
Summarized reports of round-table discussions conducted 
is fixed firmly in mind. It would be better to prolong the period of in- 


fancy, so to speak, through the first three half-years, in order to gain 
needed time for real mastery of the essentials.” 


CONTENT 107 


at meetings of the Latin Section of the Iowa State Teachers’ 
Association, the Classical Section of the Kentucky State 
Teachers’ Association, the Classical Section of the Bay Sec- 
tion California State Teachers’ Association, and the New 
Jersey Classical Association indicate the same general ten- 
dencies as those shown in the stenographic reports. 

No stenographic report was received for the round-table 
discussion conducted at the meeting of the Classical Associa- 
tion of the Atlantic States held at Wilmington, Delaware, 
December 2, 1922. The report of this meeting published by 
the Secretary states that “it was plainly the sense of the 
gathering that the present curriculum in Latin for the Pre- 
paratory Schools is not excessive in its demands.”®* 

In the stenographic reports of round-table discussions re- 
ferred to above there is frequent reference to various devices 
to which teachers feel they must resort in order to “cover” 
the prescribed amount of reading. One teacher said: “In try- 
ing to cover the required amount of Latin I am sure that in 
very many cases subterfuges are employed that none of us 
exactly approve.” Another teacher said: “We have no trouble 
in covering the course as it is; one oration of Cicero and one 
book of Vergil is usually read to the class by the teacher.” 
It is clear that in many schools a part of the prescribed read- 
ing for each year is done by special assignments. 

Others frankly admitted that they have abandoned the 
attempt to read intensively the required amount. One teacher 
said, for example: “It is just impossible in the time we have 
at the present day to cover all the material we should like to 
cover, that is, the four books of Caesar, Cicero and Vergil. 
The teachers worry about the necessity of covering the re- 
quirements, make the mistake of striving to cover them, and 
soon pupil and teacher come to despair. The method used 


63 See “Classical Association of the Atlantic States: Fourth Annual Fall 
Meeting,” The Classical Weekly, XVI (January 15, 1923), p. 31. 


108 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION | 


by me is not to try to cover the ground, but to enable the atu 
dent to be able to go on.” | : 


An analysis of replies to a questionnaire” sent to college 


instructofs giving courses in elementary Latin which are. 


accepted by their institutions as the equivalent of two units 
of Latin for entrance credit shows that 47% of those report- 
ing read classical Latin less in amount than two books of 
Caesar, 22% read more than two books but less than four, 
and 31% read four books. Of those who report having read 
less than two books of Caesar more than half read no classical 
Latin at all or at most not more than ten pages. It is evident 
that many colleges have felt free to reduce the amount of the 
reading content of their elementary courses in Latin 
considerably below that required of secondary school pupils 
who apply for the same amount of credit. Many of these in- 
structors, basing their comments upon their experience in 
teaching elementary Latin in college, contributed valuable 
suggestions concerning the kind and amount of reading ma- 
terial to be included in the work of the first two years in the 
secondary schools. 

The general pressure for time now felt throughout the sec- 
ondary course in Latin, some of it due to the shortened time 
allotted to the class period of instruction, is further indicated 
by the fact that the general tendency to organize Latin clubs 
has been to a considerable extent the result of a desire to find 
the additional time necessary to develop those values of the 
study of Latin which are regarded by teachers as legitimate, 
but which, because of insufficient amount of time, cannot be 
given adequate attention in the regular class period.® The 
64 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 
65'Thus in the Report of the Committee on Classical Languages of the 
Commissicn of the National Education Association on the Reorganiza- 
tion of Secondary Education the need of additional time outside the 
class period is recognized and much stress is laid upon the utilization of 
Latin clubs to supplement class-room instruction: “Some of these topics 


CONTENT 109 


ressure for time is also indicated by the fact that 457 of 
he teachers filling out the general questionnaire report that 
hey find it necessary to devote one or more hours a week 
utside of the class period to preparing pupils to take the 
Sollege Entrance Board examinations. 

That the remedy for the present congestion in the course 
s to be found in part in a reduction of the content is further 
ndicated by the fact that an increasing number of individual 
chools are attempting to meet the situation by reading an 
smount of classical Latin considerably less than that pre- 
ccribed in the standard course. The Jones study,°* based upon 
nformation from 261 representative schools in Ohio and 
Pennsylvania, shows that 297 of the schools reporting on 
this question read in 1921-1922 less than four books of 
Caesar’s Gallic War; that 20% read less than six orations 
of Cicero and that 17% read less than six books of the Aeneid. 
The Colthurst study®? shows that a similar situation exists 
in the schools of Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Ne- 
braska, North Dakota and South Dakota. In these seven 
states 29% of the schools reporting on this question read less 
than four books of Caesar, 11% less than six orations of 
Cicero, and 23% less than six books of the Aeneid. From in- 
formation furnished by teachers filling out the general ques- 
tionnaire it is clear that the situation reported above is of 
wide extent. , 

The demand for reduction in the amount of classical Latin 
to be read in the secondary course has met with official sanc- 
tion in the announcements of many colleges. The Adams 
study,”* based on definite statements secured from the ad- 


will properly be included in the regular assignments of the class-room; 
but many of them will serve as subjects for investigation and report at 
meetings of the Latin Club.” 

66 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 

67 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 

68A, W. Adams, dn Analysis of College Entrance Requirements. See 
Part II, Chapter IV, Section 15. 


110 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


mission officers of 178 colleges and universities, shows that 
47% of these institutions accept for four units of entrance 
credit the reading of classical Latin less in amount than that 
prescribed in the standard course. 

The reading of less than the standard amount of classical 
Latin has the official sanction of several state departments 
of education. The New York State Syllabus for Ancient Lan- 
guages (1919) provides for the substitution of Ritchie’s 
Argonauts for an equal amount of Caesar. The reduction in 
the amount of reading required by the New York State Syl- 
labus in the third and fourth years has already been men- 
tioned. The Pennsylvania State Course of Study (1923) 
makes provision for the reading of easy Latin for the first 
three months of the second year and for a corresponding 
reduction in the amount of classical Latin to be read in that 
year. 

The same tendency appears in several other recently is- 
sued state or local courses of study in Latin. For example, 
the Maryland State Syllabus for Latin (1921), while requir- 
ing an amount of reading equivalent to that contained in the 
standard course, states that the equivalent of one book of 
Caesar, two of Cicero’s orations, and two books of the Aeneid 
may be read at sight, and the Latin Syllabus for the High 
Schools of Chicago (1922) requires an amount of reading 
in each year approximately one-fifth less than that contained 
in the standard course. 

Despite the practical difficulties which tend to discourage 
independent action, some individual schools and school sys- 
tems have already further sought to relieve the congestion, 
especially in the first year of the course, by providing for a 
longer approach to the first classical author and by post- 
poning to the third semester, or later, a part of the gram- 
matical material included in the usual type of beginners’ 


CONTENT 111 


ook. The Jones and Colthurst studies® show that 21% of 
he 353 schools reporting on this question read some easy 
atin in the third semester before beginning the reading of 
he first classical author. These studies show further that 
8% of these schools continued the use of the beginners’ book 
hroughout the whole or a part of the third semester. 

Further evidence that the general demand for a reduction 
n the amount of work to be done during the first two years is 
easonable is disclosed by a comparison of the reading con- 
ent of the Latin courses in the secondary schools of the 
Jnited States with the reading content of corresponding 
courses in the schools of Germany and of England. It is clear 
shat pupils in American high schools are expected, on the 
pasis of the present standard course, to read with the same 
sxpenditure of time a much larger amount than is required 
of pupils in European schools. 

In the recently developed reformgymnasiwm of Germany” 
pupils begin the study of Latin at from twelve to thirteen 
years of age. Their initial equipment is much superior to that 
of the average American pupil when he begins the study of 
Latin. These German pupils have studied German grammar 
carefully for the three preceding years, have read selected 
stories from the mythology and heroic legends of Greece and 
Rome, have studied a modern foreign language for three 
years, and have had a year’s course in Greek and Roman 
history. Even with this initial equipment pupils devote ten 
fifty-minute periods a week during the first year to elementary 
Latin, including the reading of approximately seventy pages 
of easy Latin, before beginning the first classical author, 
which is usually Caesar. This is more than double the time 
69 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 
70See “The Teaching of Classics in Secondary Schools in Germany,” in 
a Special Report on Educational Subjects published for the Board of 


Education by Wyman and Sons, London (1910), Volume 20, pp. 123, 
126-7. 


112 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


allotted to first-year Latin in American high schools. N 
until the middle of his third year has the American pupi 
spent in the Latin class-room the same total amount of tina 
a German pupil has spent before he begins his first classica 
author. 
Even with this thorough preparation German pupils ar 
not expected during the first half of the second year to trans 
late any Caesar independently. During this time all the ad 
vanced assignments in translation are worked out in class.‘ 
The time allotment during the second year is eight fifty 
minute periods a week, double the amount of time availabl 
in American schools. Under these conditions about five book 
of Caesar and 700 lines of Ovid are read in the second year 
An examination of the Latin programmes” of thirty-st 
secondary schools in England of the type in which pupil 
begin Latin at approximately twelve years of age and con 
tinue it for four years reveals several general tendencies. Th 
reading of easy Latin is begun early in the course and th 
“reader” forms the basis for the study of the vocabulary 
syntax and forms. In twenty-one of the thirty-six school 
whose programmes were examined a classical author is begu 
in the second year. This author is usually Caesar, althoug! 
Ovid is often read and occasionally Eutropius or selection 


71“Yet even for a boy of 13-14 years, who has an average aptitude fo 
languages, the first plunge into Caesar is hard; the Germans recogniz 
frankly that many of the difficulties he presents are greater than the 
can expect boys to solve for themselves, and therefore to set a boy dow 
to Caesar with no hint or help except a dictionary is either to make hir 
despair or practically to drive him to the use of subterfuges which wil 
make possible the impossible. Every teacher recognizes that the use o 
‘cribs’ depraves both mind and morals, and therefore his first duty is t 
train the boy, who means honestly by his work, to feel that he can d 
without them. It is like teaching a boy to swim,—one must hold up hi 
chin until he begins to feel that he can go by himself. Accordingly, dur 
ing the first half of Caesar all preparation is done in class with th 
teacher, and all the boy has to do at home is to revise carefully what ha 
been so prepared.” Jbid., p. 38. 

72See Part III, Chapter I. 


CONTENT 113 


‘om various authors. The average amount of classical Latin 
ad intensively in these twenty-one schools during the second 
ear is approximately equivalent to one book, or at the most 
, two books of Caesar. In fourteen of the thirty-six schools 
ie reading of a classical author is not begun until the third 
ear. The postponement of the reading of the first classical 
uthor until the third year is recommended in the recent re- 
ort of the committee appointed by the Prime Minister to in- 
wire into the position of the classics in the educational system 
f England.” There is a considerable variety of reading 
aterial in the third year of the course, the following authors 
ppearing: Caesar, Sallust, Cicero, Livy, Pliny, Ovid, Vergil 
nd Horace. The same authors furnish the material for read- 
ig in the fourth year. There is also practice in reading and 
ranslating “unseens.” The amount of classical Latin read 
ntensively during the third and fourth years is about one- 
hird of that included in the present standard course of 
merican schools. The amount of time each week usually given 
o Latin varies from four to five periods of forty-five minutes 
ach with assignments for each lesson to be prepared outside 
f class.™ 

It has already been pointed out that one of the criteria 
thich should be employed in determining the reading content 
s its suitability for contributing to the appreciation of the 
listorical-cultural values and that these objectives are not 
iow being satisfactorily attained. It is important to consider 
vhether the results could be improved by a wiser choice of 
reading material. There is considerable difference of opinion 
among teachers as to whether the content of the present 
standard course constitutes the best medium which Latin 
3 See The Classics in English Education, H. M. Stationery Office, London, 
England (1921). 
741t must be remembered, however, that pupils in these English and Ger- 


man schools begin the study of Latin two years younger than American 
pupils begin Latin in our standard four-year secondary school course. 


’ 


114 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


literature affords for attaining these objectives so far as 
they are attainable within the period of secondary education 
and there is pressing need for a careful appraisement of th 

present course from this point of view and for an equally 
careful appraisement of all the resources of Latin literature 
in order to discover the material which will best satisfy the 
criterion proposed and at the same time constitute a suitable 
medium for progressive development of power to read Latin. 

The selection of material which will encourage the teacher 
to develop and the pupil to realize the cultural and historical 
values, meet the needs of different types of schools and satisfy 
the varying interests of teachers involves both the searching 
out of much hitherto unused material and the free opportun- 
ity for teachers to put such material to the test of class- 
room use. 

Accordingly, if such new material is to be EE ee our 
recommendations concerning reading content must be char- 
acterized by considerable freedom and the standard course 
must be so defined as to encourage teachers to use this free- 
dom in selecting the reading content which in their judg- 
ment will best serve for the attainment of the historical- 
cultural objectives they consider valid for their pupils. 

A freer range of reading has long been generally recog- 
nized as desirable in the Latin course for secondary schools. 
It has been strongly recommended at various times in the last 
thirty years by all committees which have investigated the 
question.” 

75 Report of Committee of Ten on Secondary School Subjects. National 
Education Association (1893), pp. 63-64. . 

Report of Committee of Twelve. In Proceedings of the American Phil- 
ological Association, XXX (1899), cii. 

Report of Committee on College Entrance Requirements. In Proceed- 
ings of the American Philological Association, XLI (1910). 

Report of Committee on Classical Languages of the Commission of the 


National Education Association on the Reorganization of Secondary Edu- 
cation. 


CONTENT 115 


There is clear evidence that most teachers of secondary 
Latin desire greater freedom of choice as to the Latin au- 
thors to be read. Information from many sources indicates 
that, while teachers are practically unanimous in their opin- 
ion that the secondary course should include reading from 
Caesar, Cicero and Vergil, only a very small minority favor 
restricting the reading solely to these three authors, or at 
any rate to those parts of these authors prescribed in the 
present standard course. 7 

One question in the questionnaire sent to members of the 
Classical Association of the Atlantic States’ reads: “If you 
would make no omissions in quantity, would you make sub- 
stitutions (in the present standard course) ?” Eighty-seven 
per cent of the secondary teachers answering this question 
returned an unqualified “yes.” The substitutes most com- 
monly recommended were: selections from Nepos or from 
Caesar’s Gallic War V-VII for parts of Books I-IV, some of 
Cicero’s letters or essays, selections from Ovid for one or 
more of Cicero’s orations, and selections from Ovid for one 
or more books of Vergil’s Aeneid. 

A similar desire for a wider range of choice is expressed by 
the teachers who answered the general questionnaire and the 
special questionnaires on reading content, and by many who 
took part in the round-table discussions. 

We may now consider to what extent this freedom of choice 
recommended by various committees and clearly desired by 
the majority of teachers has found expression in the regula- 
tions of the College Entrance Examination Board and in 
college entrance requirements ; and then to ascertain to what 


76See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 

77A number of teachers evidently understood that the question included 
the possible substitution of non-classical Latin for a part of Caesar, The 
most commonly mentioned substitutes of this type of reading were 
Ritchie’s Fabulae Faciles and Lhomond’s Viri Romae. 


116 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


extent teachers of Latin have availed themselves of any free 
dom of choice allowed by the Board or the colleges. 

The regulations of the College Entrance Examination 
Board with reference to the amount and range of reading re- 
quired are: 

1. The Latin reading, without regard to the prescription of 
particular authors and works, shall not be less in amount 
than Caesar, Gallic War, I-IV; Cicero, the orations 
against Catiline, for the Manilian Law, and for Archias: 
Vergil, Aeneid, I-VI. 

2. The amount of reading specified above shall be lect 
by the schools from the following authors and works 
Caesar (Gallic War and Civil War) and Nepos (Lives) ; 
Cicero (orations, letters and De Senectute) and Sallust 
(Catiline and Jugurthine War) ; Vergil (Bucolics, Geor- 
gics and Aeneid) and Ovid (Metamorphoses, Fasti anc 
Tristia). 

The Adams study” shows that most of the colleges which 
make prescriptions as to the kind and amount of Latin to 
be offered for college entrance accept the modification in kind 
described in paragraph 2 above and that 17% of the colleges 
included in the study place no limitations whatever on the 
authors or works to be read. 

Nevertheless, the information gathered from a large num- 
ber of schools in various parts of the country indicates that 
comparatively few schools in actual practice deviate to any 
considerable extent from the present standard course in the 
selections read. The Colthurst study,*° which includes rep- 
resentative schools in Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, 
Nebraska, North Dakota and South Dakota, shows that of 


78 See Document 101 (August 1, 1919) of the College Entrance Examina- 
tion Board. 

79 See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 15. 

80 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 


CONTENT VET 


the schools which reported having read an amount equivalent 
to that prescribed in the standard course, 83% read during 
the second year the first four books of the Gallic War only 
and in order, and that the remaining 17% read selections 
from the Gallic War only. No school reported reading selec- 
tions from Nepos or from Caesar’s Civil War. The same study 
shows that of the schools which reported having read during 
the third year an amount equivalent to that contained in the 
standard course, 68% read Cicero’s Catilines I-IV, the Mani- 
lian Law and Archias, while 23% read selections from other 
works of Cicero and 10% read selections from Ovid. This 
study also shows that of those schools reporting that the 
amount of reading done during the fourth year was equiva- 
lent in amount to six books of Vergil, 98% read the Aeneid 
I-VI only, while 2% substituted selections from Ovid for a 
part of the Aencid. The Jones study,” giving similar infor- 
mation for the schools of Ohio and Pennsylvania, shows that 
of the schools which report having read in the second, third 
and fourth years an amount equivalent to the standard 
course, 86% read precisely the content of the present stand- 
ard course during the second year, 83% during the third 
year and 95% during the fourth year. 

The replies of the teachers who in the general questionnaire 
reported reading during the second, third and fourth years 
an amount equivalent to the standard course, give further 
evidence concerning the actual practice of the schools. Of 
the 365 schools which reported that they read in the second 
year the equivalent of the standard course, 83% read Caesar’s 
Gallic War I-IV, 8% read selections from Caesar’s Gallic 
War I-VII, 1% read selections from Nepos, while 1 school 
read selections from Caesar’s Civil War, 1 school read selec- 
tions from Ovid, and no school read selections from any other 
author. Of the 376 schools which reported that they read in 
81See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 


118 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


the third year the equivalent of the standard course, 837 
read Cicero’s Catilines, Manilian Law and Archias, 7% read 
other orations of Cicero or selections from other orations, 
3% read Selections from the letters of Cicero, 3% read selec- 
tions from Ovid, and 7% read selections from other authors 
(Sallust, Caesar or Vergil). Of the 245 schools which re- 
ported that they read in the fourth year the equivalent of the 
standard course, 63% read Vergil’s Aeneid I-VI, 33% read 
selections from Ovid, 2% read selections from Aeneid I-XII, 
and 4% read selections from other authors. 

Of the teachers answering the general questionnaire who 
reported that they read Ovid during the second, third or 
fourth years, 70% reported having read those selections from 
Ovid which are contained in the prescriptions of the College 
Entrance Examination Board for 1923, 1924 and 1925, 
while 14% reported reading more and 15% reported reading 
less than this amount. Of teachers reporting that they 
read Ovid in the fourth year, 75% stated that Ovid had been 
substituted for an equivalent amount of Vergil. 

It is a fair inference from these facts that the reading of 
Ovid in the majority of schools is not at present an expres- 
sion of freedom of choice, but rather the result of a definite 
prescription both in kind and amount, and that under present 
conditions the majority of teachers may be expected to 
deviate from the present standard course only under influence 
from some external source, such as the College Entrance Ex- 
amination Board. 

It is clear that the practice of the majority of schools in 
the matter of variety in books and authors read is not in har- 
mony either with the expressed wishes of teachers or with the 
definite recommendations of previous committees as embodied 
in present college entrance requirements and in the prescrip- 
tions of the College Entrance Examination Board. While it 


CONTENT LS 


is true that those prescriptions set a very definite limit to the 
amount of freedom which teachers may exercise in their choice 
of reading material, only a comparatively small number of 
secondary teachers seem to have taken advantage of the free- 
dom actually provided. 

The question immediately arises as to why the freedom 
apparently available has not been exercised. The opinions of 
teachers are quite definite as to the causes which restrain their 
freedom of choice. One question in the questionnaire sent to 
members of the Classical Association of the Atlantic States 
was concerned directly with the individual teacher’s freedom 
of choice in the matter of reading material. To the question, 
“Have teachers of Latin in secondary schools had in fact any 
freedom in the choice of reading material, that is, any oppor- 

tunity to shape their own courses?”, 57% of the 88 secondary 
‘teachers answering this question returned an unqualified “‘no” ; 
24% said “yes,” but indicated that this freedom was limited 
in range to that allowed by the College Entrance Examination 
Board, college entrance requirements, state courses of study, 
or prescribed text-books ; 1076 returned an unqualified ‘“‘yes”’ ; 
and 8% said “yes, to some extent.” Of those who returned a 
negative answer 80% mentioned college entrance requirements 
and the entrance examinations among the causes of this lack 
of freedom, 12% mentioned text-book adoptions, and 127 
mentioned lack of suitable text-books containing desirable 
material other than that found in the present standard course. 

A special ballot®* taken at a mecting of the Ohio Classical 
Conference November 17, 1923, shows that of 47 secondary 
teachers voting 68% believed that teachers of Latin in the 
secondary schools have not in fact had any freedom in the 
choice of reading material. The limitations on this freedom 
most frequently mentioned are college entrance requirements, 


82See Part II, Chapter III, Section 5. 


120 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


local or state courses of study, text-book adoptions, and 
teachers’ familiarity with text-books which follow the stand- 
ard course. 

It is evident, therefore, that either there are factors pres- 
ent in the college entrance requirements which in actual prac- 
tice inhibit the freedom of choice apparently granted in these 
requirements or that there are certain external influences 
which inhibit freedom or that teachers themselves have been 
at fault in not using the freedom available. Accordingly, it 
is necessary, first, to discover any causes which have actually 
restrained the freedom of choice now apparently provided 
and thus have prevented teachers from making free use of it, 
and second, to make such recommendations as will enable the 
present theoretical freedom to become effective in fact and 
will also encourage teachers to exercise the freedom of choice 
recommended in this report. 

We believe that the failure of teachers to use the freedom 
theoretically permitted is largely due to the amount of in- 
tensive reading required in the present standard course. As 
has been pointed out, teachers generally consider the present 
amount excessive and have much difficulty in completing it. 
There is evidence from many sources to show that many 
teachers feel that since the présent standard course fully 
satisfies college requirements both in kind and amount, they 
are more certain to get over the amount of ground if they 
confine themselves to the present standard course, contain- 
ing, as it does, the reading with which they are most familiar 
and which, because of their repeated experience in teaching it, 
they can get over more rapidly than they could in teaching 
relatively unfamiliar material. Customary means and meth- 
ods, employed as a result of long experience with the familiar 
content of the standard course, would not be so immediately 
effective if new material were used. Hence there has developed 
a natural and obviously general tendency to “play safe” and 


CONTENT 121 


to read only the authors and selections included in the stand- 
ard course. This is natural and often excusable in the present 
situation; but the situation needs to be changed. Our inter- 
pretation is supported by the fact that of those schools re- 
porting having read during the second and third years an 
amount less than that contained in the standard course, 237 
read in the second year and 27% read in the third year ma- 
terial not included in the present standard course. These per- 
centages indicate a larger variety in the choice of books read 
than was found in schools reading in the second and third 
years amounts equivalent to the present standard course. It 
is of interest to note in this connection that the Latin courses 
in English schools which require the careful reading of much 
less classical Latin than is required in American schools are 
characterized by a large variety in the reading. 

In our opinion the tendency to follow the present standard 
course is further strengthened by the fact that the definition 
of both the amount and the kind of material to be read is 
almost universally stated in terms of the present course. This 
form of statement inevitably suggests to teachers that the 
simplest and surest method of meeting college entrance re- 
quirements is by conforming to the standard course in kind 
as well as in amount. The failure to state the definition of re- 
quirements in some less sharply restricted form puts an actual 
premium upon inertia, inasmuch as it places upon the teacher 
the entire pressure of deciding just what is “equivalent in 
kind and amount” to any part of the standard course for 
which he may desire to find a substitute. Teachers thus un- 
fairly deterred from leaving the beaten path may naturally 
come to regard Caesar’s Gallic War I-IV, for example, as 
its own most easily discovered “equivalent” in kind as well as 
in amount. 

It further appears that the various forces tending to pro- . 
duce conformity to the standard course are particularly 


122 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


potent in the second year. Here especially the theoretica. 
freedom of choice afforded by college entrance requirements 
is largely illusory. A choice between Caesar’s Gallic War anc 
Civil Wat has not presented itself to teachers as constituting 
any real choice at all. Not enough variety of style, theme o1 
personality is involved, and an extensive study of school pro- 
grammes shows that substitutions of the Civil War for the 
Gallic War are very rare. For a different reason the alterna- 
tive presented by Nepos’ Lives has also proved generally un- 
acceptable. Teachers who have tried reading the Lives gen- 
erally agree that Nepos is more difficult than Caesar. Thus 
freedom of choice in the second year has been practically lim- 
ited to the first four books of Caesar or to selections from 
the whole seven books equivalent in amount. 

Teachers further indicate that they are handicapped in 
their desire to depart from the standard course by the un- 
deniable fact that books based upon this course are on the 
whole better organized than those involving deviations from 
it. This operates to strengthen the tendency of teachers te 
keep on using the same material. | 

Many teachers admit that part of the responsibility for 
this tendency falls upon themselves. Lack of initiative and 
failure to take note of what the college requirements actually 
permit are the specific things admitted by teachers. The heavy 
teaching load and extra-curriculum duties are also mentioned 
as contributing factors. A lack of acquaintance on the part 
of many teachers with a wide range of Latin literature and the 
temptation to restrict their own reading of Latin to the con- 
tent required for class-room work are other factors men- 
tioned. In the O’Shea study referred to in the previous chap- 
ter it was found that only 30% of the teachers reporting had 
in the preceding twelve months read any Latin not previously 
read by them. Other potent factors which in the opinion of 
teachers encourage literal conformity to the standard course 


CONTENT 123 


are state and local courses of study, prescribed text-books, 
and the desire or practical necessity for uniformity within 
a given school system. 

All these retarding influences have strengthened and ex- 
tended a practice which had developed in this country pre- 
vious to the action of any national committee on the subject, 
and the reading of the first four books of Caesar, the four 
Catilines, the Manilian Law and Archias, and the first six 
books of the Aeneid has become a firmly fixed tradition in the 
minds of school administrators, of parents, and even of pu- 
pils. This definiteness is in one way an element of strength, 
but its invariability is an element of weakness. 


Section 4. General Recommendations in Regard to the 
Content of the Course 


On the basis of the evidence considered in the foregoing 
pages we make the following recommendations with refer- 
ence to the reorganization of the content of the four-year 
secondary school course in Latin: 

1. That the formal study of the elements of language during 
the first year be reduced by the postponement of many 
forms and principles of syntax until later in the course; 
that the formal study of some of these forms and prin- 
ciples be omitted entirely from the secondary course; 
and that in general the functional rather than the for- 
mal knowledge of these elements be emphasized through- 
out the course. 

2. That the vocabulary, forms and principles of syntax to 
be learned in each successive year of the course be se- 
lected in such a way as to provide conditions most fav- 
orable for developing progressive power to read and 
understand Latin and for attaining the ultimate objec- 
tives which teachers regard as valid for their pupils. 

3. That not less than 80 pages of easy, well-graduated and 


% 


124 


Or 


-—~t 


THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 
attractive Latin reading material be introduced into the 
course, beginning at the earliest possible point and con- 
tinuing at least through the third semester. 


. That this easy reading material should be such as to 


contribute both to the progressive development of power 
to read and understand Latin and to the attainment of 
the historical-cultural objectives which teachers regard 


as valid for their pupils. 


. That practice in writing Latin be continued throughout 


the first, second and third years. It may well be omitted 
from the work of the fourth year in order to allow full 


time for the reading. 


. That the amount of classical Latin authors to be read in 


the standard four-year course shall be not less than 35 
pages of Teubner text in the second year, 60 pages in 
the third year, and 100 pages in the fourth year.*® 


. That there be enough freedom of choice in the Latin 


authors to be read to make it easily practicable for 
teachers to select the reading material which in their 
judgment will provide the best medium for attaining 
during the secondary course the historical-cultural ob- 
jectives which they regard as valid for their pupils. 


. That such additional material of instruction be intro- 


duced into the course as will provide for fuller attain- 
ment of various ultimate objectives of the study of. 

. | 
Latin. 


Section 5. Criteria for the Selection of Reading Content, 


Vocabulary, Syntax and Forms 


A. READING CONTENT 


The reading of continuous Latin should begin at the ear- 


83 In terms of Teubner text (37 lines to the page) the classical Latin in 
the present standard course amounts to 80 pages of Caesar, 82 pages of | 


Cicero and 128 pages of Vergil. 


CONTENT 125 
liest possible moment consistent with whatever method may be 
employed in the introductory stages of the study of Latin. 
We believe that for at least the first three semesters a large 
amount of simple well-graded easy Latin should be included 
in the course and'that the first classical author should not be 
introduced, at least in unmodified form, before the beginning 


of the fourth semester. 


1. Easy Latin 


The Latin to be read before the first classical author is 
taken up should be such as to provide the most favorable 
conditions for progressive development of power to read 
Latin. and for attainment of the historical-cultural objectives 
which teachers consider valid for their pupils and which de- 
pend in large part upon the presence of an appropriate con- 
tent in the Latin reading material. 

We have already defined the reading of Latin as the com- 
prehension of thought directly through the Latin as it stands, 
whether or not this comprehension is followed by translation 
into English. Attention has also been called to the fact that 
while this definition has been generally accepted in theory, 
attainment of the ability to read Latin in this sense has not 
been generally realized in the schools. It is clear that if actual 
practice is to be made consistent with the accepted theory, 
a much more vigorous and persistent effort must be made to 
develop in the pupil the ability to read Latin as Latin, mean- 
ing thereby Latin as it stands in its Latin order, and that 
this effort must express itself first of all in the selection of 
reading material appropriate both in kind and amount to 
the development of this ability. 

Reading Latin as Latin of course implies that at the start 
of his Latin study the pupil must acquire a small initial stock 
of words before he can pass on to reading and understanding 
Latin phrases and sentences. One or more of the following 


126 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


ways of doing this will be found serviceable according to cir- 
cumstances: 

1. Developing this initial stock of words from Latin words 

already familiar to pupils from their English reading. 

2. Developing this initial stock through oral practice. 

3. Giving the pupils the meaning of these words. 

When this earliest start has been made and even a small num- 
ber of Latin words is understood, the pupil should at once 
begin to form the habit of inferring the probable meanings of 
new Latin words in the manner described in Chapter V (on 
method). In this way his consciousness of Latin as Latin will 
begin to expand and with it his power to use Latin as Latin. 

The most plausible explanation of the contradiction be- 
tween theory and practice seems to lie in the fact that many 
teachers believe the present required reading can be covered 
more rapidly if the pupil is allowed to attack the Latin sen- 
tence by the analytical method (1.e., by looking first for the 
subject and translating that, then for the verb and translat- 
ing that, etc.) than if he is first carefully trained to take in 
the thought of the Latin phrase or sentence in the Latin 
order before translating it into English. 

By recommending a longer approach to the first classical 
author and a reduction in the amount of classical Latin to 
be read intensively we have sought to relieve the pressure for 
time which is believed to be largely responsible for the present 
tendency to follow the line of least resistance. We also believe 
that if the pupil through extended practice with easy reading 
material has once acquired proper habits of reading, he will 
be able to read the classical Latin included in the secondary 
course with much greater appreciation and pleasure than the 
ordinary pupil does under methods commonly used at present. 
Furthermore, if methods other than translation are more 
generally employed by teachers for testing the pupil’s un- 
derstanding of what he has read and if practice in translating 


CONTENT 127 


into English is limited to selected portions of the text studied, 
it will then be possible to insist upon a better quality of Kng- 
lish both in oral and in written translation. We are convinced 
that as a result of the modifications suggested above a much 
larger proportion of pupils will continue the study of Latin 
through the four years of the secondary course and come up 
to college with a greater desire to continue the subject and 
with an ability to read Latin with much greater facility than 
is the case under present methods. 

Accordingly, the first criterion to be employed in the selec- 
tion of easy reading material is its relative value as a medium 
for developing the power to read Latin. This reading material 
should be abundant, repetitious, simple and varied in form, 
attractive in its content, and carefully adapted to the capac- 
ity of young boys and girls. 

Furthermore, the character of this easy Latin should be 
suitable for developing power to read the best classical Latin 
authors. It should, therefore, from the beginning conform to 
the genius of the Latin language, should illustrate the syn- 
thetical character of Latin, and should embody the essential 


problems of Latin word order and suspense of thought. It 


should be true Latin, even when taken from outside the clas- 
sical period. Anglicized Latin will not provide a suitable 


medium for developing power to read Latin. Finally, the 


gradual development of the sentence as a whole should receive 
careful treatment. The first brief sentences should advance 
not merely in length, but in complexity, slowly approaching 
the structure of the developed periodic Latin sentence. If 
pupils are led by easy stages, with abundance of material at 
each stage, finally to apprehend well developed sentences 
analogous to those found in the best classical authors, we 
believe that much of the painful floundering now frequently 
characterizing the first attempt to read a classical author 


will be obviated. Moreover, if there is from the start full oral 


128 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


practice in reading this easy Latin aloud, first slowly and 
then a little faster, it will go far to dispel early the auditional 
dread of saying or reading Latin aloud, now so much in 
evidence. — 

The second criterion for the selection of easy reading ma- 
terial is that the subject matter should from the first deal 
mainly with themes readily adaptable to the attainment of 
the historical-cultural objectives. In our opinion the reading 
content should include the following kinds of material: 

Classical mythology. 

Roman traditions and dramatic events in Roman history. 

Biographical sketches. 

Home life of the Romans. 

Ideas of the Romans about their environment. 

Examples of Roman wit and wisdom. 

Anecdotes and fables illustrative of Roman life and 

thought, particularly those which have a moral and embody 

the characteristic virtues of the Romans. 

Legends and stories heroic in character, such as were used 

by the Romans themselves to inculcate true standards of 

conduct, which because of their heroic quality appeal to 
the imagination of youth. 

Stories on ancient themes which have a human appeal anal- 

ogous to that found in stories used im teaching modern 

foreign languages. 

By a careful selection of reading material of this sort a 
most valuable contribution may be made through the medium 
of the reading of the first two years to the pupil’s acquaint-_ 
ance with at least a few important historical characters and 
with some of the most inspiring incidents in Roman history, 
to his general fund of information about the history, myth- 
ology, ideas and customs of the Greeks and Romans, and to 
his appreciation of the immense influence of Roman civiliza- 


tion. 


CONTENT 129 

We realize that because of the common custom of taking 
up Caesar at the beginning of the third semester and the 
consequent lack of any widespread demand for an abundant 
supply of easy “made” or adapted Latin, a supply of well- 
graded reading material sufficiently large to encourage care- 
ful selection by teachers on the basis of the criteria proposed 
above has not yet been produced in this country and made 
easily available. However, authors of several first-year and 
second-year books recently published in this country have 
emphasized the importance of reading continuous easy Latin, 
and have included in their books a considerable amount of 
“made” or adapted Latin. In England, where easy reading 
material has long supplied the basis for instruction in Latin 
for the earlier years of the course, a large and varied supply 
of books has appeared containing very suitable reading of this 
sort. 

We believe that from these various sources a supply of easy 
reading material sufficient for three or four semesters can be 
obtained.** Furthermore, we are satisfied that with wider 
encouragement given to the use of such material and conse- 
quent growth in the demand for it, the production and pub- 
lication of an abundant supply of easy and varied reading 
material suitable to the needs of American schools may be 
confidently expected. 


2. Classical Authors 


In selecting the classical authors to be included in the 
course the same two criteria should be employed as in the 
selection of easy Latin reading, that is, the suitability of the 
Latin as a medium for the progressive development of power 
to read and understand Latin and the suitability of the con- 
84 A list of books containing easy reading material, together with a brief 


description of the character of the material, will be found on pages 144- 
150. 


130 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 

tent for the development of the historical-cultural objectives. 
It has been shown that the majority of teachers at the pres- 
ent time wish to begin the first classical author at the begin- 
ning of the fourth semester. A considerable minority wish to 
begin the first classical author earlier, and a smaller minority 
wish to postpone the first classical author to the fifth semes- 


ter. It is altogether desirable that there should be reasonable 


freedom of action in this matter as well as in the choice of au- 
thors to be read. The decisive consideration, which determines 
the time at which the first Latin author should be taken up 
by any given class, is not an arbitrary number of semesters, 
but the attainment by the pupils of actual power to read the 
easier Latin with some degree of facility. With some classes 
this will come earlier and with others later. In making recom- 
mendations for a standard four-year course we assume that 


the reading of the first classical author will not ordinarily be — 


taken up before the beginning of the fourth semester. 

The following factors, which relate to the first criterion 
mentioned above, are in the judgment of the teachers who 
filled out the general questionnaire the most important in the 
selection of reading material to be included in the secondary 
course: 

The extent to which the material is adapted in difficulty.to 

the ability of the pupil. 

The suitability of the thought-content to the intra of 

the pupil. 

The suitability of the material for creating in the pupil a 

sense of progress in the mastery of the language. 

The attractiveness of the material to the pupil. 

The importance of selecting reading appropriate to the 
attainment of the historical-cultural objectives has been re- 
peatedly pointed out earlier in this chapter. Over 75% of the 


teachers filling out the general questionnaire expressed the. 


CONTENT 131 


opinion that the content of the Latin material included in the 
present course does not provide adequately for the study of 
topics relating to these objectives. While collateral reading 
in English, which is recommended by practically all the teach- 
ers as needed to supplement the Latin texts, will be desirable 
in any case, we believe that teachers should be free to select 
from Latin literature as a whole the material they believe will 
make the greatest direct contribution to the attainment of 
the historical-cultural objectives which they pays as valid 
for their pupils. 

Among the general topics which should be developed 
through reading material from classical authors adaptable to 
this end are the following: 

The attainments of the Romans in government, politics, 

law, commerce, economics, literature and art. 

Religious ideas and practical philosophy of the Romans. 

Characteristic Roman virtues. 

Private and public life of the Romans. 

History and traditions of the Romans, including selections 

from narrative, oratorical, poetic and biographical litera- 

ture. 

The continuity of Graeco-Roman civilization and its influ- 

ence upon western civilization. 

Significance of Rome as a whole, especially as a govern- 

ing state and a consequent stimulus to the imagination of 

mankind. 

The selection from available classical literature of material 
suitable both for the progressive development of power to 
read Latin and for the full attainment of the historical- 
cultural objectives detailed above will ultimately involve a 
considerable departure from the present common practice of 
restricting the pupil’s acquaintance with Latin literature to 
particular works of three authors. Of course it is probable 


1382 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


‘that the greater part of the material will naturally be taken 
from a small number of authors, and that Caesar, Cicero and 
Vergil will continue to form a substantial nucleus of the sec- 
ondary course. We strongly recommend that in choosing the 
material from these or other authors every effort be made to 
select for intensive reading such portions as provide the best 
medium for developing the general topics mentioned above. 
It is obvious, furthermore, that any given author presents 
peculiar opportunities for emphasis upon special aspects of 
Roman life and thought. Care should therefore be taken, first, 
to determine which of the aspects presented by a given author 
should be emphasized in actual teaching and, second, to make 
such selections from that author as will provide the best op- 
portunity for this emphasis. If, for example, Ovid is taken as 
one of the authors, we recommend that in addition to the gen- 
eral topics mentioned above an important criterion in select- 
ing the portions to be read is suitability for developing such 
special topics as the following: 
‘he Roman point of view with reference to the gods and to 
religious and moral questions in general. 
Roman and Greek myths which have become part of the 
common stock of modern thought and expression. 
The influence of the ancient myth upon English literature 
and upon medieval and modern art. 
The influence of Greece upon Roman ideas. 
Or, again, if the author being read is Caesar, the portions 
selected for reading should be those which best illustrate 
such special topics as: | 
The personality of Caesar as revealed in his writing, 
The German invasions as types of westward migration. ) 
The civilization of the early Gauls, Germans and Britons. 
The political significance of the Gallic campaigns. 
Ancient methods of warfare. 


CONTENT 133 
3. Collateral Reading in English 

The desirability of making collateral reading in English 
an integral part of the course has already been mentioned. 
Ninety-six per cent of the teachers filling out the general 
questionnaire expressed the opinion that supplementary ma- 
terial in English should be included in the course for the pur- 
pose of developing more effectively the historical-cultural 
values of Latin. Such reading should develop naturally from 
the contacts established through the content of the Latin 
reading material itself. The topics to be emphasized at any 
stage of the pupil’s progress should therefore be identical in 
large measure with the topics to be included in the Latin 


reading content as outlined in the two preceding sections. 


B. VOCABULARY 


The vocabulary to be thoroughly mastered during each 
year of the course should be selected for the purpose of pro- 
viding the conditions most favorable both for the progressive 
development of power to read and understand Latin and for 
attainment of the ultimate objectives which teachers con- 
sider valid for their pupils and which depend for their attain- 
ment upon vocabulary content. 

For the purpose of developing power to read Latin fre- 
quency of occurrence in the Latin to be read is the most im- 
portant factor in the selection of the vocabulary to be em- 
phasized.*’ Another important factor is suitability for oral 
use in the class-room. : 

The extent to which the various ultimate objectives will 
affect the selection of the most important vocabulary to be 
mastered will depend upon the relative importance attached 
to these objectives; and this will vary in different years, and 
85 See Part V, Latin Word-Count, based upon frequency of occurrence 
in classical Latin authors commonly read in high school and college. See 


also Lodge’s Vocabulary of High School Latin, Bureau of Publications, 
Teachers College (1907). 


154 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


with individual schools and teachers. ‘There is, however, gen- 
eral agreement that the one most important ultimate objec- 
tive which is dependent upon vocabulary for attainment is 
increasea ‘ability to understand the exact meaning of English 
words derived directly or indirectly from Latin and increased 
accuracy in their use. The Thorndike-Grinstead word-count 
will provide teachers with a list of English words derived from 
Latin arranged according to frequency of occurrence in Eng- 
lish reading and with a list of Latin words which are most 
serviceable for interpreting these words.*® Other ultimate 
objectives which should be considered in the selection of vo- 
cabulary are: 

Increased ability to understand Latin words, phrases, ab- 

breviations and quotations occurring in English.*’ | 

Increased ability to spell English words of Latin deriva- 

tion.** 

Increased ability to learn other foreign languages, espe- 

cially French, Spanish and Italian.*® 

Increased ability to learn the technical and semi-technical 

terms of Latin origin employed in other school studies and 

in the arts, sciences and professions.” 


86 See Part IV, the Grinstead-Thorndike Derivative Lexicon, based on 
frequency of occurrence in English. See also Part VI, the Smalley De- 
rivative Greek and Latin Lexicon, based on an etymological analysis of 
Murray’s New English Dictionary. 

87 For a list of Latin words, phrases, etc., most commonly occurring in 
English, and for a list of Latin words most important for an under- 
standing of them see Part IT, Appendix C. 

88 For a list of English words the spelling of which may be helped by a 
knowledge of Latin and for a list of Latin words which have the great- 
est capacity to assist in the spelling of these English words see Part II, 
Appendix B. 

89 For a list of French words most commonly occurring in French read- 
ing and for a list of Latin words which have the greatest capacity to 
assist in the learning of these French words see Part II, Appendix D. 
90 For a list of technical and semi-technical terms used in various school 
subjects and for a list of Latin words which give the most help in learn- 
ing these technical terms see Part II, Appendix A. 


CONTENT 135 
Our recommendations with regard to the reading content 
of the first two semesters involve a reading experience with a 
larger vocabulary than is commonly included in the lesson 
yocabularies and in the accompanying exercises of the typical 
beginners’ book.®*” This is inevitable, unless the reading con- 
tent is to be so meager as to fail to supply pupils with a 
genuine reading experience and so restricted in range as to 
be neither attractive nor instructive. However, it is not to be 
expected that any greater proportion of these words will be 
included among those to be thoroughly mastered than is true 
ofthe new words met in the later reading of classical authors. 
The words which a pupil meets in his reading of Latin at any 
stage fall roughly into three groups: (1) words which occur 
but rarely and the meaning of which must be determined 
merely for the purpose of interpreting the particular pas- 
sages in which they occur, but without an attempt to retain 
them permanently ; (2) words which occur rather frequently 
and which should be made a part of the pupil’s passive or 
reading vocabulary ; and (3) words which are sufficiently im- 
portant to demand a thorough mastery, because of their fre- 
quent use in Latin or because of their serviceability for appli- 
cation to English or other languages. 


C. SYNTAX 


The principles of syntax to be taught during the succes- 
sive stages of the course should be selected and distributed so 
as to provide conditions most favorable for attainment of 
progressive power to read and understand Latin and for 
attainment of the ultimate objectives which teachers consider 
91 The desirability of introducing a wider reading vocabulary into begin- 
ners’ books is now widely recognized. An examination of the five most re- 
cently published beginners’ books, each of which contains a considerable 
amount of connected Latin reading, shows an average total reading vo- 


eabulary of about 1500 words, although the number of words set for 
Memorization does not in any of these books exceed 600. 


136 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 
valid for their pupils and which are dependent for their at- 


tainment upon a knowledge of particular principles of syntax 

We believe the application of the first criterion involves a 
considerable reduction in the number of syntactical principles 
to be included in the work of the first two semesters and an 
emphasis upon functional rather than upon formal knowledge 
of the principles taught. In our judgment the conscious iden- 
tification and labeling of constructions is of value for the de- 
velopment of ability to read Latin only in so far as it demon- 
strably assists pupils to comprehend the thought of the Latin 
sentence being read. The syntactical constructions occurring 
in the material read at any stage need not be limited to those 
principles which have been formally taught. A working 
knowledge of the general principles of agreement and of a few 
fundamental noun and verb constructions will provide the 
pupil with sufficient syntactical equipment for a considerable 
reading experience. With the careful guidance of the teacher 
in an observant use of the context the pupil can in many 
cases see how to solve the difficulties presented by an unfami- 
lar case or mood construction, and in such instances the 
progress of the pupil through the Latin sentence is apt to be 
hindered rather than aided by an interruption of the current 
thought for the sake of syntactical analysis. When, however, 
a difficulty arises in the interpretation of the sentence which 
cannot be solved without an understanding of the syntactical 
principle involved, the emerging practical difficulty of inter- 
preting the sentence furnishes an immediate incentive for an 
explanation of the principle, and thus a readier and surer 
grasp of the principle is likely to result than is the case when 
the principle is presented without immediate need for its use, 
but apparently alone and for its own suke and before the 
pupil has had a reading experience sufficient to serve as a 
background for discovering the use of the principle involved. 

We believe that the proposed reduction in the number of 


CONTENT 137 
syntactical principles to be mastered in the work of the first 
two semesters and an emphasis upon functional rather than 
formal knowledge will result both in greater ability to make 
practical use of the principles considered essential and in a 
better grasp of the principles themselves than is commonly 
secured at present. 

An analysis of the results of the Pressey test® shows at the 
end of the second semester for the country as a whole the fol- 
lowing averages in a functional knowledge®*® of the noun, pro- 
noun and adjective constructions’ commonly included in the 
work of the first year. 


Accusative of places to which with ad....--.--- 11% 
Ablative of manner with cwm ....-+-5+ee eee? 69% 
Ablative of accompaniment with cwm .....+++-: 66% 
Accusative of direct object.....-----++e++e: 65% 
Genitive of the whole (partitive) .......-+-++-- 63% 
Dative of indirect object .....------eeeee ee: 62% 
DVB LIVerOL <AZEM ba Crema. vse! ole alte ve ere ein sa rene es 61% 
Adjective in direct agreement ....+--+++++++- 57 Yo 
Ablative of place where with im ...-.-+++++++- 55% 
Ablative of time at which .......-..2--+0+5- 54% 
INUIT (AP POSUCLOM cece yo y= fen te eon ges 2 aes 547% 
Accusative of duration 2.2.0.5...) 8 ee 53% 
Nominative in the predicate with est ....-.--- 53% 
Ablative of place from which with ew ....----- 5 Lo 
Genitive of possession .....--+-++eeerr riers 51% 
WA TET UCD ELT CATIS 4 chadsvst alae fs theet s) Pid) bi Slee fe pet oles 48 Vo 
Accusative subject of an infinitive .....-.-+---- 48 Yo 


92See Part II, Chapter I, Section 5. 

98The test employed does not involve a knowledge of technical names 
of constructions but the ability to select from four choices offered the 
Latin word or phrase which correctly expresses the syntactical principle 
presented in English. 

94 The terminology employed in the list of constructions is in general that 
recommended in the Report of the Joint Committee of Fifteen on Gram- 
matical Nomenclature appointed by the National Education Association, 
the Modern Language Association of America, and the American Philo- 
logical Association. 


138 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Genitive of description or quality ............ 48 Yo 
Dative! of reference oreconcern: & s\n. 42. hia 45 Yo 
Ablative OF GAUSC i techies ols: «5-0 a hates ieee 44% 
Adjective in predicate agreement ..;........- 43 Yo 
Dative of purpose (auailio and praesidio)..... 4270 
Accusative im the predi¢ate 72a we cy emer eee 31% 
Ablativevabsolitet iu) 4... 22 ee 34% 
Ablativetof!derreedawitiw . ic Sle Gee ene 34% 
Ablativevol .Tespecta nas s.. + «> Gade ne 3370 
Nominative in the predicate with factus est .... 287% 
Ablative’ of COMIPaisoi i, ». «ssc he se ee 27% 
Dative with adjectives (similis)... 0... 700% 271 %o 
Dative with special verbs (perswadeo and credo) 26% 
Dative of; possessnoni tape nas </s0)-f) .vedat aeepalaeaee ne 25% 
Ablative with special verbs (wtor) ............ 25% 


A similar analysis of the results of the Godsey test,°° also 
a multiple-choice test, shows at the end of the second semes- 
ter the following averages in a functional knowledge of verb 
constructions commonly included in the work of the first year: 


Subjunctive in a clause of purpose (negative). 80% 


Subjunctive in a relative clause of purpose .... 27% 
Subjunctive in a conditional sentence contrary to | 

FAC ee oe eats”, Si.) oe ee Q7% 
Agreement of verb with subject (perfect passive 

idica tive)’; usa: \ael eal eee 26% 
Subjunctive in exhortation or command ....... 24% 
Subjunctive in a clause of result ............. 23% 
Subjunctive in a clause of cause ............. 23% 
Infinitive in indirect statement .............. 20% 
Passive pepiphirasti@: M22 ic Gas ale 17% 
Gerundiyt fcoristructton: 3) <. 0.5 2 17% 
Subjunctive in a clause of fear ............... 16% 
Subjunctive in a substantive volitive clause..... 8% 
Subjunctive in an indirect question ........... 4% 


The common practice of including in the work of the first 
two semesters in Latin the formal study of so large a number 
of principles of syntax is apparently based on the assumption 


95 See Part II, Chapter I, Section 6, 


CONTENT 139 


that a formal knowledge of all these principles isa prerequisite 
to the reading of a continuous Latin text. It 1s evident from 
the two lists given above that the ordinary pupil, however, 
does in fact undertake the reading of classical Latin before 
he acquires anything approaching sufficient mastery of either 
formal or functional syntax. The tabulations given above 
show that many pupils who take up the reading of a classical 
author at the beginning of the third semester do so with a 
thorough mastery of few or none of the principles of noun 
syntax, and with a knowledge of verb syntax that is almost 
negligible. 

The extent to which the various ultimate objectives will 
affect the distribution and emphasizing of syntactical prin- 
ciples will depend upon the relative importance attached to 
these objectives and this will vary in different years and with 
sndividual schools and teachers. We believe, however, that the 
decisive factor determining the point at which a syntactical 
principle should be taught is its serviceability for assisting 
directly in interpreting the thought of the Latin being read or 
indirectly through its usefulness for oral or written work, 
‘and that while its serviceability for applying a knowledge 
of Latin grammar to other related fields should be used to 
the fullest extent, this function should not be permitted to 
hasten the introduction of principles not actually required 
for the interpretation of the thought of the Latin text being 
read or to hasten the introduction of Latin reading material 
involving those principles, unless this material is clearly suit- 
able for other purposes also. It is further clear that only 
those syntactical principles which have been thoroughly 
grasped in connection with the study of Latin itself are 
likely to contribute to the attamment of other objectives. 

There is general agreement that the one most important 
ultimate objective which is dependent for attainment upon a 
knowledge of Latin syntactical principles 1s increased knowl- 


140 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


edge of the principles of English grammar and an increased 
ability to speak and write grammatically correct English, 
The satisfactory attainment of this last named objective in- 
volves kitowledge on the part of the teacher of what gram- 
matical principles learned in Latin are in fact applicable to 
English and what grammatical errors in English are suscep- 
tible to correction through the application of grammatical 
principles learned in Latin.”° 

Other objectives which should be considered in selecting 
grammatical principles for particular emphasis are an in- 
creased ability to learn other foreign languages, and an ele- 
mentary knowledge of the general principles of language 
structure. 

We recommend that the principles of syntax taught during 
the first semester should be limited to a very few repeatedly 
occurring noun, verb and adjective constructions, including 
the general principles of agreement and the commoner uses 
of the accusative and ablative cases with prepositions; that 
the many noun and verb constructions now commonly in- 
cluded in the work of the first year be distributed over the 
work of the later semesters ; and that in particular the teach- 
ing of the uses of the subjunctive should not be undertaken 


before the third semester. 


D. FORMS 


The inflectional forms to be included in the secondary course 
should be selected and their assignment to various semesters 
of the course should be determined solely on the basis of the 
extent to which they contribute to thegprogressive deyvelop- 
ment of power to read and understand Latin. The ultimate 
objectives which depend for attainment upon an application 
96 For a list of grammatical principles common to Latin and English 


and for a list of common grammatical errors in English remediable 
through Latin see Part II, Appendix E. 


CONTENT 141 


*n other fields of a knowledge of Latin forms are not of 
sufficient importance to affect the distribution of inflectional 
forms by semesters. 

The application of this criterion involves in our Judgment 
a reduction in the number of forms to be included in the 
work of the first two semesters, a more gradual introduction 
of these forms than is the common practice at present, pro- 
vision for a repeated reading experience with the forms to be 
learned, and in general an emphasis upon functional rather 
than formal knowledge both in the learning of these forms 
and in subsequent drill upon them. We wish to emphasize our 
belief that those forms which are set for learning should be 
so thoroughly mastered that a recognition of a given inflec- 
tional ending and of the grammatical ideas possible for that 
ending will become practically automatic. 

Insistence upon a thorough mastery of the forms set for 
learning does not, however, require that the forms to be used 
in the reading material should be limited to those already 
learned, or that the pupil should be halted in his progress 
through a Latin sentence by the appearance of some unknown 
form. It will not be necessary, for example, to postpone the 
use of an accusative singular of the fourth or fifth declension 
until all the other forms of those declensions have been mas- 
tered, nor will it be necessary to avoid entirely the use of the 
subjunctive until the forms of the subjunctive have been 
taught. This appearance at times of new forms in the reading 
before they are set for learning not only permits a desirable 
freedom in the selection of reading material but by creating 
a sense of need for new knowledge furnishes a motive for a 
better mastery of the forms when they are finally taken up.** 


97“If properly taught, the interest in the reading matter would be so 
great and the relation of the grammatical work to that reading matter 
would be so direct and clear that an adequate motive for mastering the 
necessary technicalities of grammar would be supplied.” W. E. Foster in 
“The Preliminary Statement of the Chairman of the Committee on 


142 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 

We believe that the proposed reduction in the number of — 
i 
| 


forms to be learned in the first two semesters and a greater — 
emphasis on a functional knowledge of these forms will result | 
in an eather and surer mastery of the essential inflectional — 
forms than is commonly the case at present. It has already — 
been pointed out that a '757%o average in a functional knowl- 
edge of verb-forms, as measured by the Tyler-Pressey test, 
is not attained in the country as a whole until the sixth sem- 
ester of the four-year course. The verb-forms used in the 
Tyler-Pressey test are limited to those commonly included in 
the work of the first year. A detailed analysis of results of this 
test shows at the end of the second semester the foltowing 
averages for the country as a whole in a functional knowl- 
edge’ of the various verb-forms included in the test: 


fOETUNG Wen eee 19% mittetises 2b. eres Bap hy. 
mittebamini ...... 19% moneberis: es, fae. 49% 
mo livers bkvesiaelh 13% laardawvisseywa see de Te ATE 
Hudiverant hh ickels, tn 11% capti stints hei 48 Yo 
MOVE Pheer el avant 10% laudsres: .\caieane AT Yo 
POLES tN cea Ah eta 70% SED.» isis bee 7 Gale 46 Yo 
CEU ry eee ete ire 70% seudiens/" s+ ss aaa 4.6 Yo 
MISS US Erb) eee ea 68 % auditus esset ...... 4A Yo 
mowebami ds whe Wie 67 % laudatesieuh inal 44% 
MOLT S I sea eA ta 66% AUGIVISSES wile chal kl oe 88% 
pugnaverunt ...... 65 Yo audia tit, ocean hee 38 Yo 
WO UISEIS Lahn haben 60% hiceat:, queen 34% 
ZAUTS Fh cs a) Lae alti aah Ob 58% Posset.) tena ee 30% 
mittintare Suey bs 55% si’ moverer is. fae 29% 
pugnemus ........ 557% captre. Ae 21% 
INDVETAUS sf sieved ene nie 537% sequenturiie 4g 16% 


Ancient Languages of the Commission of the National Education Asso- 
ciation for the Reorganization of Secondary Education,” United States 
Bureau of Education Bulletin, Number 41 (1913). 

98'The Tyler-Pressey test measures the ability of the pupil to select from 
four choices offered the English verb or verb-phrase which correctly 
translates a given Latin verb-form. The test is so constructed as not to 
involve problems of person or number, nor of vocabulary, 


CONTENT 143 

The Briggs study,’® based upon results of the Lohr- 
Latshaw test, which includes the 35 inflectional forms most 
frequently appearing in 16 first-year Latin books, shows 
that the ordinary pupil in the high schools tested at the end 
of one year’s study of Latin could give the classification of 
fewer than 20 of these 35 forms, and that only 4% of the 
second-semester pupils tested were able to classify correctly 
all the forms included. The results of a detailed analysis of 
the scores made in five of the best schools tested, in which the 
average score was 23.6, leads the author to the following con- 
clusions: “If we assume that ten per cent of these pupils fail 
of promotion, we find that Latin teachers consider an abil- 
ity to classify thirteen of the essential thirty-five forms sufh- 
cient to justify sending boys and girls on to Caesar. If 
twenty-five per cent fail, the ability to classify nineteen, or 
a little more than half, is considered sufficient.’”° It is clear 
that in spite of the effort commonly made at present to se- 
cure a mastery of all the regular inflectional forms before the 
continuous reading of a classical author is begun, the ordin- 
ary pupil does as a matter of fact undertake to read Caesar, 
Cicero and even Vergil with a hazy knowledge of a good many 
of the supposedly indispensable forms. 

We recommend that an early and thorough functional 
knowledge of a few of the most important forms be insisted 
upon as a basis for a fairly extensive reading experience and 
that the learning of the remainder of the forms determined 
upon as desirable for the course as a whole be postponed 
until the needs arising in the later reading supply the com- 


pelling motive for their acquisition. 


99T, H. Briggs, “The Lohr-Latshaw Latin Test,” The Classical Journal, 
XVIII (May, 1923), pp. 451-465. 

100T, H. Briggs, “The Lohr-Latshaw Latin Test,” The Classical Journal, 
XVIII (May, 1923), p. 457. 


144 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Section 6. Specific Recommendations In Regard to the 
Content of the Course 


A. READING 
1. In Latin 


We make the following specific recommendations with ref- 
erence to the minimum reading content of the four-year 
course: 

First Semester. Not less than 15 pages of continuous easy 
Latin selected in accordance with the criteria already de- 


fined. ‘This material may be selected from one or more begin- 


ners’ books’*’ supplemented by selections from such readers 


as: 


Atkinson and Pearce’s Dent’s First Latin Book (an illus- 
trated reader). Dent and Sons, London, 1912. | 

Godley’s Fables of Orbilius, Part I (very easy stories with 
pictures), 22 pages of actual text. Edward Arnold, 
London. 

Paine and Mainwaring’s Primus Annus (easy stories of 
Roman life), pages 11-31. Oxford University Press, 
American Branch, New York, 1912. | 

Paine, Mainwaring and Ryle’s Decem Fabulae (Latin 
plays graded in difficulty), pages 7-26. Oxford Uni- 
versity Press, American Branch, New York, 1912. 

Reed’s Julia (short stories of Roman life), pages 1-16. 
Macmillan, 1924. 

Sonnenschein’s Oro Maritima (a Latin story for beginners 
with pictures), pages 23-43. Swan, Sonnenschein and 
Co., London, 1913. 

Spencer’s Scalae Primae (easy anecdotes and fables with 
illustrations), 32 pages of continuous text. Bell and 
Sons, London, 1922. 


Second Semester. Not less than 25 pages of continuous easy 
Latin of somewhat greater difficulty than that read in the 
first semester, selected in accordance with the criteria already 


101 For a list of recently published beginners’ books containing continuous 
reading material see Part II, Appendix G. 


CONTENT 145 © 


Jefined. This material may be taken from one or more begin- 
xers’ books, supplemented by selections from such readers as: 
Beresford’s First Latin Reader, Part II (anecdotes, fables, 
stories from Greek and Roman history, with pictures), 
pages 23-47. Blackie and Son, London. 

Collar’s Heatley and Kingdon’s New Gradatim (anec- 
dotes), pages 12-96. Ginn and Co., 1895. 

Gallup’s Latin Reader (fables, short stories, and tales of 
early Rome, with pictures), #2 pages of actual text. 
American Book Co., 1913. 

Godley’s Fables of Orbilius, Part II (easy stories with pic- 
tures), 26 pages of actual text. Edward Arnold, Lon- 
don. | 

Kirtland’s Ritchie’s Fabulae Faciles (four Greek myths 
told in Latin), pages 3-7 (Perseus). Longmans, Green 
and Company, 1903. 

Morton’s Legends of Gods and Heroes (graded in difficulty 
and illustrated), pages 1-54. Macmillan and Co., re- 
printed 1922. 

Newman’s Easy Latin Plays (two simple plays on Roman 
themes), 8 pages of actual text. Bell and Sons, London, 
1913. 

Olive’s Mirabilia (stories on modern themes), 80 pages. 
Edward Arnold, London. | 
Paine and Mainwaring’s Primus Annus (easy stories of 
Roman life), pages 37-75. Oxford University Press, 

American Branch, New York, 1912. 

Paine, Mainwaring and Ryle’s Decem F'abulae (Latin plays 
graded in difficulty), pages 27-94. Oxford University 
Press, American Branch, New York, 1912. 

Reed’s Julia (Greek and Roman history and traditions), 
pages 17-61. Macmillan, 1924. 

Sanford and Scott’s Supplementary Latin Readings (Per- 
seus and Hercules), 23 pages. Scott, Foresman and Co., 
1923. 

Sonnenschein’s Ora Maritima (a Latin story for beginners 
with pictures), pages 43-58. Swan, Sonnenschein and 
Co., London, 1913. 

The Vulgate Bible (easier and more familiar passages). 


' 146 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Third Semester. Not less than 40 pages of continuous easy 
made or adapted Latin selected in accordance with the criteria 
already defined. This material may be taken from beginners” 


books and second-year books’’’ supplemented by selections 


from such readers as: 

Allen’s T'ales of Karly Rome (stories adapted from Livy: 
Romulus and Remus, The Rape of the Sabines, The Hor- 
atii and Curatii, The Doom of Mettius Fufetius, How a 
Slave became King of Rome), 27 pages of actual text. 
Oxford University Press, American Branch, New York, 
1899. 

Allen’s T’ales of the Roman Republic, Part I. (stories 
adapted from Livy: Lars Porsena of Clusium, The Belly 
and the Limbs, The Massacre of the Fabi, Camillus and 
the Schoolmaster, Camillus and the Gauls), 26 pages of 
actual text. Oxford University Press, American Branch, 
New York, 1900. | 

Allen’s T'ales of the Roman Republic, Part I. (stories 
adapted from Livy: The Caudine Forks, The Siege of 
Saguntum, Hannibal’s Passage of the Rhone, Hannibal’s 
Passage of the Alps), 26 pages of actual text. Oxford 
University Press, American Branch, New York, 1901. 

Appleton and Jones’ Puer Romanus (stories of Roman 
daily life), 65 pages. Oxford University Press, American 
Branch, New York, 1913. 

Appleton and Jones’ Pons Tronum (stories of Roman 
daily life, illustrated), 32 pages. Bell and Sons, London, 
1914. 

Appleton’s Fabulae (short stories retold from various ¢élas- 
sical authors, with illustrations), 120 pages. Bell and 
Sons, London, 1914. 

Appleton’s Ludi Persicit (eleven Latin plays), 55 pages. 
Oxford University Press, American Branch, New York, 
1921- 

Arnold and Pierce’s Cornelia (incidents from Roman his- 
tory), 71 pages. Dent and Sons, London, 1912. 

102 For a list of second-year books containing easy made or adapted Latin 
see Part II, Appendix G. 


CONTENT 147 


Arrowsmith and Knapp’s Lhomond’s Viri Romae (Roman 
history), 111 pages. American Book Co., 1896. 

Beresford’s First Latin Reader, Part III (mythology, 
stories from Greek and Roman history), pages 48-78. 
Blackie and Son, London. 

Chickering’s First Latin Reader (Roman history), 142 
pages. Scribner’s, 1917. 

Clark and Game’s Second Latin (80 easy selections from 
medieval and renaissance Latin), 42 pages. Mentzer, 
Bush and Co., 1924. 

Collar’s Heatley and Kingdon’s New Gradatim (‘The Argo- 
nauts and Ulysses from Fabulae Faciles), pages 97-125. 
Ginn and Co., 1895. 

Collar’s Via Latina (selections from Fabulae Faciles and 
Viri Romae; and fables), 75 pages. Ginn and Co., 1897. 

D’Ooge’s Easy Latin for Sight Reading (selections from 
Fabulae Faciles, Viri Romae, and Aulus Gellius), 180 
pages of text. Ginn and Co., 1897. 

D’Ooge’s Lhomond’s Viri Romae (Roman history), 71 
pages. Ginn and Co., 1897. 

Edward’s Roman Tales Retold (stories adapted from vari- 
ous Latin authors), 45 pages. Scott, Foresman and Co., 
1924. 

Gallup, 4 Latin Reader (fables, short stories, tales of 
carly Rome with pictures), 42 pages of actual text. 
American Book Co., 1913. 

Gildersleeve’s Latin Reader (fables, myths, anecdotes), 
pages 5-36. University Publishing Co., 1896. 

Greenstock’s Rivington’s Single Term Latin Readers, Sec- 
ond Term, Books I and III (fables, mythology, stories 
from Greek and Roman history), 19 pages each. Riving- 
ton’s, London, 1904. 

Kirtland’s Ritchie’s Fabulae Faciles (four Greek myths 
related in Latin), pages 9-60 (Hercules, The Argonauts, 
and Ulysses). Longmans, Green and Co., 1903. 

Lowe’s Anecdotes from Pliny’s Letters (simplified and 
graded selections concerning Roman daily life), 25 
pages, Oxford University Press, 1910. 

Lowe’s Caesar in Britain (simplified text of selections from 


148 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


a ee 


Gallic War, IV and V), 20 pages. Oxford University 


Press, American Branch, New York, 1910. 

Macaulay’s Hannibalian War (simplified Livy), 60 pages. 
Macmillan and Co., reprinted 1921. 

Mainwaring and Paine’s Secundus Annus (early Roman 
history), 85 pages. Oxford University Press, American 
Branch, New York, 1917. 

Moore’s Porta Latina (fables of La Fontameys 33 pages. 
Ginn and Co., 1915. 

Morton’s Legends of Gods and Heroes (graded in difficulty 
and illustrated), pages 55-92. Macmillan and Co., re- 
printed 1922. 

Nall’s Seven Kings of Rome (simplified Livy), 46 pages. 
Macmillan and Co., reprinted 1916. 

Nutting’s First Latin Reader (stories from early Amer- 
ican history, stories retold from Caesar), pages 1-157. 
American Book Co., 1912 

Nutting’s Junior Latin Plays (three Latin plays), 33 
Paees, University of California Press, 1922. 

Paxson’s Two Latin Plays (A Roman School and A Roman 
Wedding), 33 pages. Ginn and Co., 1911. 

Rolfe’s Lhomond’s Viri Romae (Roman history), 94 PIERS. 
Allyn and Bacon, 1898. 

Ryle’s Olim: Ludi ‘Se aenict (five short Latin plays), 40 
pages. Bell and Sons, London, 1914. 

Schlicher’s Latin Plays (seven plays on Roman themes), 
172 pages. Ginn and Co., 1916. 

Sonnenschein’s Pro Patria (a sequel to Ora Maritima), 46 
pages. Swan, Sonnenschein and Co., London. 

Welch and Duffield’s Caesar’s Helvetian War (simplified), 
21 pages. Macmillan and Co., reprinted 1919. 

Welch and Duffield’s Caesar’s Invasion of Britain (simpli- 
fied), 20 pages. Macmillan and Co., 1890. 

Welch and Duffield’s Eutropius’ Historia Romana (simpli- 
fied), 82 pages. Macmillan and Co., reprinted 1921. 

Wilkinson’s Legends of Ancient Rome (simplified Livy), 
40 pages. Macmillan and Co., reprinted 1922. 

Winboldt’s Dialogues of Roman Life (house, furniture, 
dress, school, games, travel, etc.), 103 pages. Bell and 
Sons, London, 1913. 


CONTENT 149 


Meachers who wish to take up the reading of classica! 
Latin in the third semester should substitute the equivalent of 
not less than 15 pages of Teubner text selected from the 
suthors and works listed under the recommendations for the 
fourth semester. 


Fourth Semester. An amount of classical Latin equivalent 
to not less than 35 pages of Teubner text selected in accord- 
ance with the criteria already defined from such authors and 
works as: 

Aulus Gellius’ Noctes Atticae. 

Caesar’s Gallic War, Books I-VII. 

Caesar’s Civil War, Books I-III. 

Eutropius’ Historia Romana. 

Nepos’ Lives. 

Ovid’s Metamorphoses. 

Phaedrus’ Fables. 

Quintus Curtius Rufus’ Life of Alexander the Great. 

Terence’s Phormio (Fairclough and Richardson’s simph- 
fied edition). 

Valerius Maximus’ Facta et Dicta Memorabilia. 

Or the reading may be selected from such collections as: 

Bice’s Sight Reading in Latin (selections from Aulus Gel- 
lius, Caesar, Cicero, Eutropius, Livy, Nepos, and 
Pliny). Ginn and Co., 1918. 

Dale’s Reges. Consulesque Romani (stories of early Rome 
selected from the first books of Livy). Oxford University 
Press, American Branch, New York, 1915. 

Duff’s Silva Latina (a Latin reading book containing 145 
brief selections from Catullus, Cicero, Horace, Livy, Lu- 
eretius, Martial, Ovid, Pliny, Propertius, Tibullus, and 
Vergil). Cambridge University Press, 1921. 

Greenstock’s Rivington’s Single Term Latin Readers, 

Books I, II and III (easy selections from Livy). Riving- 

ton’s, London, 1907. 

Petrie’s Latin Reader (140 short selections from fourteen 
Latin authors). Oxford University Press, 1918. 

Ritchie’s Easy Latin Passages (252 brief selections from 
various Latin authors). Longmans, Green and Co., 1914. 


Witton’s Dies Romani (62 selections from various Latin 
authors) Edward Arnold, London, 1906. 

Teachers who wish to continue the use of made or adapted 
Latin duting the fourth semester should read 70 pages se- 
lected from such readers as those listed under the recom- 
mendations for the third semester. 


150 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 
; 
‘ 


Fifth and Sixth Semesters. An amount of classical Latin 
equivalent to not less than 60 pages of Teubner text selected 
in accordance with the criteria already defined from such 


authors and works as: 

Caesar’s Gallic War, Books I-VII. 

Caesar’s Civil War, Books I-III. 

Cicero’s Orations, e.g., Archias, Catiline I, Catiline ITI, 
Ligarius, M anilian Law, Marcellus, Milo, Murena, Phi- 
lippic I, Phillipic IV, Roscuis Amerinus, Verres (Cruci- 
fixion of a Roman Citizen and Plunder of Syracuse). 

Cicero’s Letters (selected). 

Cicero’s Essays, e.g., De Senectute, De Amicitia, De Officiis, 
Book III, De Finibus, Books I and II. 

Nepos’ Lives. 

Ovid’s Metamorphoses. 

Pliny’s Letters (selected). 

Sallust’s Catiline and Jugurthine War. 

Terence’s Phormio (Fairclough and Richardson’s simpli- 
fied edition). | 

Vergil’s Aeneid, Books I-VI. 

Or the reading may be selected wholly or in part from such 
collections as those listed under the fourth semester, to which 
may be added as especially appropriate for the fifth and sixth 
semesters : 

Rogers and Harley’s Roman Home Life and Religion 
(Latin readings from many Latin authors arranged by 
topics, together with English translations of additional 
selections). Oxford University Press, American Branch, 
New York, 1923. 


Walford’s Extracts from Cicero (selected passages top- 


CONTENT 151 
ically arranged). Oxford University Press, American 
Branch, New York, 1873. . 

Seventh and Eighth Semesters. An amount of classical 
Latin equivalent to not less than 100 pages of ‘eubner text 
selected in accordance with the criteria already defined from 
such authors and works as: 

Cicero’s Orations, Letters and Essays (see under Fifth 

and Sixth Semesters). 

Catullus’ Poems (selected easier poems). 

Horace’s Odes (selected easier poems). 

Livy’s History (selected easier passages). 

Ovid’s Metamorphoses, T'ristia, Heroides, and Fast. 

Plautus’ Captivi. 

Pliny’s Letters (selected easier letters). 

Terence’s Andria. 

Vergil’s Aeneid I-XII, Bucolics, and Georgics. 

Or the readings may be selected wholly or in part from such 
collections as those listed under the fifth and sixth semesters. 


2. Collateral Reading in English 


We recommend that reading in English on topics bearing 
on the historical-cultural objectives be made a part of the 
work of each year of the course. We wish particularly to em- 
phasize the desirability of directing this reading and the ac- 
companying class-room discussion not so much toward the 
acquisition of bald facts as toward development of the broad- 
er implications of the several topics with especial reference to 
their significance in relation to the present-day environment 
of the pupils. It is recommended that only a very few of the 
topics here suggested should be taken up by any one class. 
The careful study of a very few topics is preferable to a su- 
perficial survey of a larger number. Following out the ramifi- 
cations of almost any one of these general topics will lead 
to a good preliminary view of Roman civilization, 

We desire to emphasize the need for the preparation and 


152 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


publication of attractive special handbooks containing an ele- 
mentary but adequate presentation of such topics. Of the 
teachers filling out the general questionnaire 93% express a 
desire to have such handbooks prepared, written from the pu- 
pil’s point of view and containing an elementary and orderly 
treatment of the topics under discussion, and 71% of these 
teachers would like to have included in Latin books a fuller 
treatment of these topics than is commonly given at present. 
The following list of topics is made up chiefly from those re- 
garded as important by the teachers filling out the general 
questionnaire. As indicated in the discussion of criteria, the 
development of these topics should be occasioned by contact 
with them in the Latin reading itself. 


Daily life of the Romans. 


The Roman family and the Roman attitude towards the 
family as an element in the state. 

The education of children. 

Marriage and the position of women. 

The sanctity and purity of the life within the home: the 
principles of obedience, respect for elders, simplicity and 
frugality, modesty, deference to authority, pride of race; 
the contrast between some of these characteristics and 
certain modern tendencies. 

The manner of living among the Romans: their houses, 
servants, meals, and dress. 

The lack of present-day conveniences, such as facilities for 
lighting, determining the time of day, etc., and the ef- 
fect of this lack upon the Roman mode of life as con- 
trasted with ours. 

Methods of writing letters and publishing books; private 
and public libraries. 

Private activities outside the home: the baths, Roman holi- 
days (e.g., Saturnalia, Lupercalia, Floralia, New Year’s 
Day), and their modern survivals or counterparts. 

Games and amusements (e.g., in the Campus Martius, the 
circus, the theater, the amphitheater) ; survivals such as 
the Italian morra, or the modern circus. 


CONTENT 153 


Modes of travel by land and sea: roads, famous streets and 
roads (e.g., Via Sacra, Via Appia), chariots, litters, 
ships, docks, and lighthouses. 

Background for understanding such allusions as “thumbs 
down,” ““Morituri te salutamus.”’ 

The Roman’s attitude toward his enviroment: how medi- 
cine was regarded, with what animals and plants he was 
familiar, what he knew of the earth and sky and natural 
phenomena in general. 

Water supply, public baths, street lighting, police, fire 
protection. 

Measures of time: divisions of the day and night. 

Roman life as a whole, as shown in historical novels. 


Characteristic Roman qualities and stories illustrative of 

them. 

Patriotism: Curtius, Cincinnatus, Decius, Fabius. 

Courage: Horatius, Cloelia, Marcus Manlius; the remark 
of Pyrrhus. 

Fortitude: Mucius Scaevola; attitude of the Romans fol- 
lowing the battle of Cannae and similar defeats. 

Honor in keeping one’s word: Regulus. 

Integrity in public life: Curius, Fabricius, Cato. 

Sternness of Roman discipline: L. Junius Brutus, Aulus 
Postumius, Manlius 'Torquatus, Cato the Elder. 

Uprightness in private life: Lucretia. 

Frugality and simplicity: Manius Curius, Cato, Scipio. 

Roman pride of race: the Gauls in Rome, the battle of the 
Caudine Forks. 

Respect for gods: Aeneas; Tarquin and the Sibylline 
books. 

Modesty: Cornelia. 

Obedience to authority: Titus Manlius. 

Feeling for justice: L. Junius Brutus. 

Pride in worthy achievement (“gloria”): the Fabii, Ca- 
millus, Aemilius Paulus, Marcellus, Scipio. 

Religious ideas and mythology of the Romans. 


The ideas of the Romans with reference to the gods and 
their attitude toward them; deference to higher powers. 

Performance of religious obligations and observance of 
religious ceremonies ; details of worship. 


154 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


The religious festivals. 

Belief in omens; interpretation of dreams. 

Ideas of the infernal regions; of Elysium. 

Background for understanding modern allusions to Lare: 
and Penates, oracles, augurs and augury, auspices, liba 
tions, the Vestals. 

Indebtedness of Rome to Greece for myths of gods anc 
heroes. : 

Myths of Greek gods and heroes (e.g., stories of Pandora 
Bellerophon, Atlanta, Arachne, Echo, Persephone, Bau 
cis and Philemon, Hercules, Jason, Perseus, Damon anc 
Pythias, the Minotaur, Ulysses, Achilles, Circe). 

Myths of Roman heroes (e.g., Aeneas, Evander, Romulu: 
and Remus). 

Background for understanding common allusions such a 
“an Adonis,” “the Midas-touch,” “thaleyon days,” “s 
sop to Cerberus,” “an Elysium.” 


Roman history and traditions: a general idea of the develop 
ment of Rome, of the main periods in the history of Rome 
and of important legendary or historical personages asso 
ciated with them. . 


Early Rome: the seven kings, Romulus, the Horatn anc 
Curati, Tarpeia. 

The establishment of the Republic: Brutus, Horatius, Ap 
pius Claudius. 

Extension of the Republic over Italy: Camillus Fabricius 
Manlius, Cincinnatus, Pyrrhus. 

Struggle of the plebians for equal rights: Menenius Agrip 
pa, Coriolanus, the Fabu. 

Struggle with Carthage: Duilius, Fabius, Regulus, Hanni 
bal, Hamilcar, the Scipios, Cato the Elder. 

Roman control of the Mediterranean world: Flamininus 
Aemilius Paulus, suppression of piracy. 

Growth of popular rights: the Gracchi. 

Civil war: Marius, Sulla, Cinna. 

Downfall of the Republic: Pompey, Cicero, Caesar, Cras 
sus, Cato, Brutus, Antony. 

The Empire: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero 
Trajan, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, Constantine. 


CONTENT 155 


Background for understanding common allusions, such as 
“Punic faith,” ““Delenda est Carthago,” ‘Crossing the 
Rubicon,” ‘‘The die is cast,” “Et tu Brute,” “Veni, vidi, 
vici,” “A Fabian policy,” “Pax Romana,” “Vae victis,” 
“Refusing the crown.” 


Topography and geography. 
_ Location and situation of Rome: the seven hills, the Forum 
and some of its structures. , 
Some idea of the way the city looked with its walls, gates, 
-aqueducts, theaters, amphitheaters, baths, temples, 
houses, shops and gardens. 

The Tiber, Campus Martius, Circus Maximus, Coliseum, 
Pantheon, temples of Vesta, Janus, Saturn. 

Geography of the Mediterranean basin and of the ancient 
world; development and extension of Roman power. 

Significant geographical facts in connection with Caesar’s 
conquests. 

Trade routes in the Greek and Roman world; comparison 
with present. 

Latin place names in the modern world. 


The government of ancient Rome. 

The three classes of society and modern parallels. 

The senate; comparison with the United States Senate. 

Popular assemblies. 

Duties and privileges of Roman citizenship and modern 
analogies. 

Roman officials and modern counterparts. 

Comparison of Roman constitution with that of the United 
States. 

The Roman colonial and provincial system and a compar- 
ison with those of England and of the United States. 

The sources of weakness in the Roman state and compar- 
ison with present-day tendencies. 

Traditions of Roman government in western Europe. 

Relation of the Roman Empire to the Christian Church. 

Background for understanding common allusions to such 
terms as “curule chair,” ‘“‘the fasces,” “‘tribune,” “twelve 
tables,” “dictators,” “censor,” ‘‘consul.” 


156 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Political, social and economic attainments of the Romans. 


Political methods in Rome and a comparison with present 
methods. 

Aims of political parties in the Roman state and compar- 
ison with present political parties. 

Social reformers and radicals: the Gracchi, Drusus, Cati- 
line, Caesar; comparison with modern representatives 
of progressive, radical and labor parties. 

Class struggles; agrarian problems in ancient and modern 
times; conflict of capital with labor. 

Effect of colonial expansion; of slavery. 

Taxation problems, ancient and modern. 

Exploitation of natural resources. 

Problem of poverty and luxury, ancient and modern. 

Professions and trades among the Romans: the lawyer, doc- 
tor, banker, money lender, author, baker, dyer, florist. 


Significance of ome as a whole. | 

The Roman genius for government, law and organization 
in general. 

The Roman genius for practical affairs. 

Rome’s domination of the world. 

Rome’s belief in her own high mission. 

The persistence of the imperial! idea 

Rome the Eternal City. 

Influence of Rome on Western Civilization. 

Our specific debts to the Romans: our alphabet, our lan- 
guage, Roman tyPea in printing, names of months, and 
the like. 

Our general debt to the Romans: the spread of Roman 
civilization through western Europe, the political and 
cultural development of the Latin races, including those 
in Latin America. 


Be. VOCABULARY 


We make the following recommendations regarding the 
Latin vocabulary to be thoroughly learned during the nor- 
mal four-year course: 


| 
| 


CONTENT 157 


That from 400 to 500 words be selected for thorough 
mastery in the first year of the course and approximately 
500 words in each succeeding year of the course. 


C. SYNTAX 


We recommend that the requirements in the syntax to be 
thoroughly mastered ‘°° during the normal four-year course 
should comprise only the principles given below and should be 
listributed by semesters as follows: 


First Semester 
Agreement : 

Verb with subject 

Adjective with noun 

Appositive with noun or pronoun 

Predicate noun or adjective with subject 

Case uses: 

Nominative as subject 

Genitive of possession and other adnominal uses, but 
without differentiation or separate identification 

Dative of indirect object 

Accusative of direct object 

Accusative in prepositional phrases including those 
with ad and in expressing place whither, but without 
differentiation or separate identification 

Vocative in direct address 

Ablative of means 

Ablative in prepositional phrases including those with 
ab, de, ex, cum, in, expressing separation, place 
whence, agent, manner, cause, accompaniment, 
place where, but without differentiation or separate 
identification 

103 Tt is assumed that the pupil before being required to master a given 


principle of syntax in any particular semester will have had some prac- 
tical experience with the principle in connection with his reading. 


158 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Second Semester 

Agreement: 
Pronoun with antecedent 

Casé uses: 
Accusative as subject of infinitive 
Accusative of duration or extent 
Ablative of time 
Ablative of .cause 

Verb uses: 
Present infinitive in indirect discourse 


Third Semester 
Case uses: 
Dative with intransitive verbs as these are met 
Dative with compounds as these are met 
Accusative of place whither, without a preposition 
Ablative absolute , 
Ablative of respect 
Ablative with deponents as these are met 
Verb uses: 
Independent volitive subjunctive 
Subjunctive in a clause of purpose with wt and ne 
Subjunctive in a clause of result with wt and wt non 
Subjunctive in a cwm-clause of situation 
Subjunctive in indirect questions 
Sequence of tenses as far as needed in the reading and 
writing 
Complementary infinitive 
Perfect and future infinitives in indirect discourse 


Fourth Semester 
Case uses: 
Genitive of description 
Dative of reference 


Dative of purpose as met in the reading 


CONTENT 159 


Dative of possessor 
Ablative of separation without a preposition 
Ablative of description 

Verb uses: 
Subjunctive in a substantive volitive clause 
Subjunctive in a relative clause of purpose 
Subjunctive in a clause of anticipation 
Subjunctive in a cum-clause of cause 
Subjunctive in a subordinate clause in indirect dis- 

course 

Infinitive as subject or object 
Gerundive 


Fifth and Sixth Semesters 
Case uses: 
Dative with adjectives as these are met 
Dative of agent 
Ablative of comparison 
Ablative of degree of difference 
Locative 
Verb uses: 
Subjunctive in a cwm-clause of concession 
Subjunctive in a relative clause of description (char- 
acteristic) 
Subjunctive in a substantive clause of fact with wt 
Passive periphrastic 
Subjunctive in present and past conditions contrary 
to fact 


Seventh and Kighth Semesters 
Case uses: 
Genitive with adjectives as these are met 
Genitive with verbs of remembering and forgetting as 
these are met | 
Genitive with impersonal verbs as these are met 


160 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Double accusative with verbs of making, etc., as 
these are met 
Verb uses: 
Historical infinitive 
Subjunctive in wishes 
Subjunctive expressing possibility, obligation, etc. 
Poetical constructions, such as the accusative of specifi- 
cation, should be noted as they occur. 


D. FORMS 
We recommend that the forms to be thoroughly mastered 
during the normal four-year course should comprise only 
those given below and that they should be distributed by se- 
mesters as follows: 


First Semester 
Nouns of the first and second declensions 
Adjectives of the first and second declensions 
Formation of adverbs from adjectives of the first and 
second declensions 
Pronouns: quis, ego, tu, is 
Verbs: 
Indicative of swm (except the future perfect) 
Indicative active and passive of the first and second 
conjugations (except the future perfect) 
Imperative of all conjugations present active second 
singular and plural 
Infinitive of the first and second conjugations present 
active and passive 
Principal parts of selected verbs of the first and sec- 
ond conjugations 
Second Semester 
Nouns of the third declension 
Adjectives of the third declension (i- stems and compar- 
atives ) 


CONTENT 161 


Formation of adverbs from adjectives of the third de- 
clension 
Comparison of regular adjectives 
Pronouns: gui, hic, ille, ipse 
Verbs: | 
Indicative of the third and fourth conjugations active 
and passive (except the future perfect) 
Imperative of all conjugations present passive second 
singular and plural 
Present infinitive active and passive of the third and 
fourth conjugations 
Perfect passive participle of all conjugations 
Principal parts of selected verbs 


Third Semester 
Nouns of the fourth and fifth declensions 
Irregularities in the declension of pronominal and nu- 
meral adjectives 
Comparison of the irregular adjectives magnus, parvus, 
multus, bonus, malus 
Verbs: 
Subjunctive of swm (except the perfect) 
Subjunctive active and passive of all conjugations 
(except the perfect) 
Perfect infinitive active and passive and future active 
infinitive of all conjugations 
Present active and future active participles of all 
conjugations 
Gerund 


Principal parts of selected verbs 


Fourth Semester 
Pronouns: aliquis and quisque 
Verbs: 
Irregularities in the conjugation of possum, eo, fero, 
volo, nolo and malo 


162 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Deponent verbs of all conjugations 

Future passive participle (gerundive) of all conjuga- 
tions 

Principal parts of selected verbs 


Fifth Semester 
Nouns: 
Locative 
Verbs: 
Future perfect indicative active and passive of al! 
conjugations 
Perfect subjunctive active and passive of all conjuga- 
tions 
Supine 
Principal parts of selected verbs 


Section 7. College Entrance Requirements 


It has already been shown that less than five per cent of pu- 
pils who annually begin the study of Latin in our secondary 
schools may be expected at present to complete the secondary 
course in Latin and continue the subject in college. Theoret- 
ically, therefore, the question of college entrance require- 
ments directly concerns only a small minority of pupils now 
studying Latin in the schools. But, as has been shown, col- 
lege entrance requirements do in fact exert a powerful in- 
direct influence upon the course pursued by the great major- 
ity of secondary school pupils who will not go to college or, 
going to college, will not continue the study of Latin in col- 
lege. | 

In view of the practical relationship existing between college 
entrance requirements and the content and methods of the 
course in secondary Latin we are convinced that if the rec- 
ommendations contained in this report are to become gener: 
ally effective and if proper freedom is to be given to teacher: 
of Latin to develop the Latin course in accordance with 


CONTENT 163 


what they believe to be the needs of their pupils, certain modi- 
ications will need to be made in present college entrance re- 
juirements. 5 

While we have sought primarily to make such recommen- 
Jations as would in our opinion best serve the needs of all the 
pupils who are studying Latin in the secondary schools of the 
country, we believe that the course recommended in this re- 
port will also provide for those who will continue the study of 
Latin in college a much better preparation for advanced 
work than the present standard course provides. In particu- 
lar, we believe that the interest of the small minority as well 
as of the great majority will be served best by the provision 
for a greater emphasis upon the development of power to read 
Latin as Latin, for a more thorough mastery of a smaller 
1umber of technical facts, and for a longer approach to the 
reading of the first classical author.*** Furthermore, the re- 
sults secured in the four-year English schools show that a 
yrade of scholarship much higher than is commonly attained 
n the schools of our country can be secured on the basis of 
1 considerably smaller amount of intensive reading of the 
slassical authors.*”° 

The primary concern of the colleges, and their undoubted 
04 “In my opinion, there is imperative need of reform in the work of the 
irst two years of the course. It is now so hurried that it loses much of 
ts immediate value and affords a poor preparation for further study. 
[he teacher should have time to drill his class of beginners on new forms 
ind constructions until they have been thoroughly learned, adding to the 
exercises of the book as much as may be necessary; and there should be 
considerable reading of simple graded Latin—so simple that it can be 
read with a sense of mastery and so carefully graded as to give an op- 
dortunity for full consideration of each new difficulty. This means, of 
‘ourse, simplified or ‘made’ Latin, and doubtless entails, in the case of 
nost high schools, a reduction in the reading of the canonical works.” 
J. C. Kirtland, “High-School Latin and College Entrance Requirements: 
A Reply,” The Classical Journal, X (Febuary, 1915), p. 232. 


05 See I. Kandel, The Classics in England, France and Germany, Part 
ITI. 


164 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


right also, is to determine whether those secondary school 
pupils who wish to continue the study of Latin in college are 
prepared to do so.'°° The responsibility of determining the 
means by which the pupils can best be given this preparation 
should be placed on the schools.*°* We believe that the results 
obtained in this way will be much more satisfactory to the 
colleges. 

It was shown in Section 8 of this chapter that 84% of the 
teachers filling out the general questionnaire expressed the 
opinion that the present standard course should be modified. 
Of those expressing this opinion 97% indicated their belief 
that the course so modified would provide an adequate prep- 
aration for continued reading of Latin in college. 

The modifications in college entrance requirements sug- 
gested later in this section are in accordance not only with the 
recommendations contained in this report and with the views 
of teachers, but with general tendencies already clearly ap- 
parent in the administration of college entrance requirements 
by the colleges themselves. The Adams study*®* shows that of 
190 colleges giving specific information with reference to their 
actual practice in the administration of entrance require- 
ments no college requires for entrance the first four books 
106 “After all, the vital question and the only question that a college has 
a right to ask a candidate for admission is, ‘Do you know enough Latin 
to enter the Freshman class?’ May the time soon come when, standing on 
that broad ground, the college will ask only that question and say to every 
worthy candidate no matter how or where prepared: ‘Tros Tyriusque 
mihi nullo discrimine agetur.’” B. L. D’Ooge, “High School Latin and 
College Entrance Requirements,” The Classical Journal, X (October, 
1914), p. 40. 

107 “The Commission feels, however, that it is wise to open the way for 
a wider range of reading, and that the schools should have the right to 
select the material to be read, the colleges contenting themselves with 
evidence that the reading has been so done as to furnish the right sort of 
training and the necessary preparation for their work.” From the Report 
of the Commission on College Entrance Requirements, in Proceedings of 


the American Philological Association, XLI (1910), exxxix. 
108 See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 15. 


CONTENT 165 


of Caesar, the specific six orations of Cicero and the first 
six books of Vergil without allowing variation in kind or 
amount; that slightly more than 52% require the reading 
of classical Latin equivalent in amount to that contained in 
the standard course but allow substitutions such as those 
recommended by the College Entrance Examination Board ; 
that 11% accept less in amount than that contained in the 
standard course; that 19% allow substitutions of non-clas- 
sical Latin for a part of the classical Latin included in the 
standard course; and that 17% do not prescribe the amount 
or kind of reading material but leave this question entirely to 
the secondary schools whose certificates they accept. In other 
words, slightly more than 47% of these 190 colleges at the 
present time admit deviations in kind, in amount or in both 
from the present standard course as defined by the College 
Entrance Examination Board.’ 

In view of the foregoing considerations we suggest that the 
following general modifications should be made in college en- 
trance requirements in Latin: 

1. That in the reading requirement emphasis be placed up- 
on quality rather than quantity, and that capacity to 
comprehend and to translate at sight should be the 

- most important factor in determining a student’s quali- 
fication for continuing the study of Latin in college. 

2. That the amount’” of intensive reading to be required 
of candidates for four units of entrance credit and for 

109 Forty colleges of the country have accepted as fulfilling requirements 
for two units of entrance credit a second-year book containing classical 
Latin equivalent in amount to two books of Caesar. 

110“—In theory, there should be no quantitative requirement, no limita- 
tion of the choice of reading, no prescription of particular works; the 
teachers would get better results if they were free to suit the material 
to their students and to keep their eyes fixed on the mastering of the sub- 
ject rather than the amount of reading. I have myself long been wedded 


to this theory, but I am not blind to the facts. No one who has had ex- 
perience in weighing school certificates or in setting college-entrance ex- 


166 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


admission to examination for college entrance be sub- 
stantially reduced. 

3. That the range of reading within which the amount pre- 
scribed may be selected should be largely increased. 

4. That in view of the practical problems involved in setting 
entrance examinations a certain amount of definitely 
prescribed reading should be required, but that the 

t3e* 


amount prescribed should be less than at presen 
. That college entrance requirements and college entrance 


Or 


examinations should attach more weight than is given at 
present to a knowledge of the content of the Latin read 
and to the historical-cultural objectives of the study of 
Latin. 

6. That college entrance requirements and college entrance 
examinations should be of such a character as to encour- 
age the persistent use throughout the secondary-school 
period of sound methods of study. 

7. That, in view of our recommendation that the writing of 
Latin may well be omitted from the work of the fourth 
year of the secondary-school course in order to allow full 
time for the reading, candidates for college entrance who 
offer four years of Latin should not be required to be 
examined in Latin prose composition. 

aminations can fail to see that some standard is necessary.” J. C, Kirtland, 
“High-School Latin and the College Entrance Requirements: A Reply,” 
The Classical Journal, X (February, 1915), p. 231. 

111“An examination in sight-translation presents the best criterion of the 
quality of the student’s work, his power and progress. The examination 
must, however, be carefully adapted to a norm of preparation, and the es- 
tablishment of the norm involves some agreement as to both the amount 
and the range of the reading. Furthermore, the prescription of a part 
of the reading not only can be defended on the ground that it enforces 
intensive study, but is in the interest of the examinee, in so far as it 
furnishes the basis of the tests in grammar and composition and a 
check upon the result of any ill-considered test in sight-translation.” 


J. C. Kirtland, “High-School Latin and the College Entrance Require- 
ments: A Reply,” The Classical Journal, X (February, 1915), p. 231, 


CONTENT 167 


We suggest the adoption by the College Entrance Exam- 
ination Board of the following specific requirements for four 
units of entrance credit in Latin: 


I. Amount and Range of the Reading Required 


1. The Latin reading shall be not less in amount than 80 
pages of easy “made” or adapted Latin and 195 Teubner 
pages of classical Latin. 

2. Of the 195 pages specified above approximately 50 pages 
shall be prescribed and the remaining pages shall be selected 
from classical authors at the discretion of the schools. 


II. Scope of the Examinations 


1. Comprehension at Sight. Candidates will be examined as 
to their ability to answer questions upon the thought of a 
moderately easy sight passage the translation of which will 
not be required. 

2. Translation at Sight. Candidates will be examined in 
translation at sight of both prose and verse. The vocabulary, 
constructions, and range of ideas in the passages set will be 
suited to the preparation secured by the intensive reading of 
the selections prescribed in 3 below. 

Norte: The most important factor in determining the fit- 
ness of the candidate to continue the study of Latin in college 
shall be his ability to comprehend and to translate Latin at 
sight. es 

3. Prescribed Reading. Candidates will be examined also 
upon the following prescribed intensive reading: 

In 1926, 1927 and 1928 selections to be specified by the 
College Entrance Examination Board amounting to ap- 
proximately: 

15 Teubner pages from Caesar’s Gallic War 
15 Teubner pages from Cicero’s Orations 
20 Teubner pages from Vergil’s Aeneid. 
4. Content. The examination will include specific questions 


168 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


on the subject matter of the prescribed reading and general 
questions upon important aspects of Roman life and civiliza- 
tion. 

In 1926, 1927 and 1928 candidates will be examined upon 
their knowledge of the following topics: (topics to be speck 
fied by the College Entrance Board.) 


CHAPTER V 
Meruops or Tracuinc Seconpary Latin 
Section 1. Introduction 


Tue preceding chapter dealt with the problem of determin- 
ing what content provides the most effectual means for de- 
veloping power to read and understand Latin and for con- 
current attainment of the ultimate objectives determined 
upon as valid. The present chapter is concerned with the 
closely related problem of the methods to be employed. 

While in this chapter we emphasize the ultimate objectives, 
it is proper in this connection to repeat once more our con- 
viction that the progressive development of power to read 
Latin is indispensable to the attainment of the ultimate 
objectives. The object of the teacher is to teach Latin in 
order that the pupil may learn Latin and may also realize the 
important enduring values derivable from the study of 
Latin. Without training in Latin as Latin pupils will do 
poorly in their attempts to make the applications of Latin. 
The proper teaching of Latin as Latin by a teacher who is 
also awake to the importance of the ultimate objectives and 
alert in using all opportunities to emphasize them will be 
sure to produce the best results. 

Moreover, while we are strongly convinced that the method 
of teaching Latin recommended in this chapter is the method 
which must be followed if the best results are to be generally 
secured, we recognize that successful results have been and can 
be attained by other methods. We also realize that success- 
ful results depend more on the thoroughness with which Latin 
is taught than on any one other factor. Knowledge of Latin 


170 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


tn 


by the teacher is the first and foremost requisite for the 


teaching of Latin. No methods, however modern or however 
perfect, can dispense with that. It is also very important that 
the teacher should constantly enlarge and enliven his knowl- 
edge by reading and study in addition to preparation for the 
daily lessons he is to teach. 


Section 2. Procedure 


The problem of methods resolves itself into two complemen- 
tary questions: 

1. What methods appear to be the most effectual for at- 
tainment of the objectives? 

2. What changes should be made in present methods in or- 
der to insure the fullest attainment of these objectives? 

In general the sources of information which were employed 
in the discussions of objectives and content in the two preced- 
ing chapters provide the basis for the conclusions reached in 
the present chapter. The chief additional sources of informa- 
tion are the following: 

1. Part III of the general questionnaire.” 

2. Parts III and IV of the pupils’ Question Blank on Con- 

tent and Method.’ 

3. The information blanks filled out by the schools partici- 

pating in the national testing programme.’ 

4. The questionnaire sent to college graduates.* 

5. The Dunbar study’ based on a study of “group inter- 
views” with teachers of Latin on methods of teaching 


various phases of Latin. : 


1 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. 

2See Part II, Chapter III, Section 6. 

3 See Part II, Chapter I, Section 19. 

4See Part II, Chapter III, Section 8. 

5 See M. M. Dunbar, “An Analysis of Group Interviews Showing Meth- 
ods Used in Latin Classes to Teach Certain Transferable Qualities,” a 
master’s dissertation at the University of Pittsburgh, 1923. 


METHODS 171 
6. The Pound and Helle study® based on an analysis of 


local examination question papers. 


Section 3. Examination of. Present Methods in Relation to 
the Attainment of the Objectives Determined 
Upon as Valid 


The discussion contained in Section 3 of the preceding 
chapter involved an analysis of the present content of the 
course in relation to the attainment of the objectives deter- 
mined upon as valid and a criticism of present methods of 
teaching, inasmuch as these depend to a great extent upon 
the content of the course. The results there examined are 
results obtained under present conditions of content and 
method, and in making the recommendations there proposed 
in regard to content we were largely actuated by the necessity 
of providing a content which would both permit and encour- 
age the use of methods which we believe will be most effective 
for attaining the immediate and ultimate objectives in the 
teaching of secondary Latin. 

The question of methods was also anticipated at many 
points in the earlier chapter on objectives. Attention was 
there called to the significant fact that the methods recom- 
mended by the teachers answering the general questionnaire 
as most valuable for the study of vocabulary, syntax, forms 
and the comprehension and translation of the Latin sentence 
for the sake of progress in Latin itself are precisely those 
which were recommended by teachers and psychologists alike 
as most likely to lead to the acquisition of correct mental 
habits and to the ability to apply in other fields the facts ac- 
quired and processes developed in the study of Latin. Fur- 
thermore the analysis of the various ultimate objectives con- 


6See L. G. Pound and R. H. Helle, “An Investigation of Objectives in 
Teaching Secondary Latin,” a joint master’s dissertation at the Ohio State 
University, 1923. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 13. 


172 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


tained in the same chapter showed that the pupil’s realization 
of the values to be found in the study of Latin depends to a 
very large degree upon the employment of appropriate 
methods in the study of the subject. 

There are, however, several additional studies relating 
specifically to methods which throw further light upon the 
need for certain changes in class-room procedure and in the 
methods which pupils employ in the independent preparation 
of their assigned lessons. 

The Grise study’ shows that the great majority of fourth- 
year Latin students follow the English order in their attack 
upon a Latin sentence, although the majority of teachers 
filling out the general questionnaire express the belief that the 
Latin sentence should be attacked in the Latin order. Again 
in their effort to solve the meaning of an unfamiliar word the 
method most commonly reported by these pupils is to “look it 
up at once in the vocabulary,” while only 87% indicate that 
they try to work out the meaning of unfamiliar words from 
the context or by associating them with related Latin words 
or English derivatives. The two last named methods are 
those most highly approved by teachers filling out the general 
questionnaire. 

One explanation of the difference between the teachers’ 
theory and the pupils’ practice is to be found in the analysis 
of class-room activities reported in this same study. 

There can be no doubt that the pupil’s consciousness of the 
type of class-room question he has learned to expect is a po- 
tent influence in his choice of method in the independent study 
of his lesson. The great majority of the 3600 pupils answer- 
ing the question blank reported that in class recitations they 


™See F. C. Grise, “Content and Method in High School Latin,” a doc- 
tor’s dissertation at George Peabody College for Teachers, 1924. See also 
Part II, Chapter III, Section 6. 


METHODS 173 


were most commonly asked to “translate the sentence” or, less 
frequently, to “translate the entire passage.” Specific ques- 
tions on the thought of the passage such as ‘Who sent envoys 
to Caesar?” “For what purpose?” “What was the result?” 
are reported as common by about half of the pupils. Less 
than a third of the pupils reported that they were commonly 
asked to “tell the story up to the point where the new lesson 
begins,” to “tell what connection this passage has with what 
has gone before,” or to “tell briefly the story contained in the 
advance lesson.” It is evident that a large number of teach- 
ers depend upon translation as the chief method of testing 
the pupil’s comprehension of a reading assignment. 

Eighty-five per cent of the pupils report that they were 
commonly asked questions on syntax such as “What is the rea- 
son for the case of rebus?” or ‘““What is the reason for the 
mood of mitterentur?”? Over 97% of them report that such 
questions were usually asked in connection with the transla- 
tion of the passage being studied. Over 647% report that such 
questions were usually asked after the translation of the pas- 
sage, while only 4% report that such questions were usually 
asked in advance of the translation. It is clear, therefore, that 
most of these questions on syntax had for their chief purpose 
something other than clearing up difficulties in advance or 
correcting errors or otherwise helping the pupil to compre- 
hend the meaning of the passage. 

Less than half of the pupils report that they have com- 
monly been asked to read the sentence or passage aloud in 
Latin. That the reading of the Latin aloud in class was in the 
majority of these cases not used as a means to an under- 
standing of the passage and was therefore from the pupil’s 
point of view perfunctory seems to be indicated by the fact 
that only 7% of the pupils reported that in their independent 
study of a reading assignment they read the Latin aloud, and 
that a majority of pupils answering the question checked 
“reading the sentence aloud in Latin” among the things they 


174 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


liked least to do. Over 75% of the teachers answering the — 
general questionnaire indicated their belief that oral read- — 
ing of the Latin should precede translation. It is clear that 
the relation of this practice to the interpretation of the 
thought of the passage must be made much clearer to pupils 
if it is to awaken their interest and affect their methods of 
study. That the perception of a real and close relationship 
between the oral use of Latin and the comprehension and ex- 
pression of thought does arouse the pupil’s interest is shown 
by the fact that while only 342 of the pupils filling out the 
question blank stated that they were commonly asked to 
answer in Latin questions in Latin on the content of the pas- 
sage being studied, 460 said that they liked or would have 
liked most to do this. 

Less than half of the pupils report that they received fre- 
quent help on the advance assignment in the form of practice 
in sight reading. Yet the teachers answering the general ques- 
tionnaire were practically unanimous in the opinion that sight 
translation should be a regular part of the work. 

Questions directed to increasing the pupil’s ability to ap- 
ply his knowledge of Latin to an understanding of English 
derivatives were reported as common by 54% of the pupils. 
The use of English derivatives as an aid in the study of Latin 
seems much less common. Only 26% of the pupils reported 
that they were commonly asked such questions as ‘‘How does 
the English word ‘opinion’ help you to tell the declension of 
opinio?,” or “How does the English word ‘mission’ help you 
to tell the fourth principal part of mitto?,” and only 29% 
reported that they were commonly asked such questions as 
“How did you get the meaning of reverti (assuming this to be 
a new word) ?” 

‘The Swan study,° based upon the replies made by 505 stu- 


8See R. Swan, “Content and Method in High School Latin,” a master’s 
dissertation at Indiana University, 1923. See Part II, Chapter III, Sec- 
tion 6. 


METHODS 175 


dents who were continuing the study of Latin in college after 
having completed four years of Latin in the secondary 
schools, confirms the evidence secured from the Grise study. 

It is probably not too much to say that the practice of 
depending solely or largely on the translation of a passage 
to test the pupil’s preparation of the passage without giving 
him adequate assistance or training in preparation of the 
advance assignment is in large measure responsible for the 
frequent use of illegitimate helps in the study of Latin. The 
Grise study referred to above shows that the pupils in almost 
half of the schools included in the study reported that “a 
few,” “many” or “all” of their classmates used translations 
or “ponies” in the preparation of their lessons in Caesar and 
Cicero and that in about one-third of the schools a “few” 
pupils used these “helps” in the preparation of their lessons 
in Vergil.® 

The Dunbar study,’® based upon “group interviews” se- 
cured from teachers enrolled in teachers’ courses in Latin in 
the summer sessions of several institutions and upon similar 
material obtained at meetings of classical teachers, sheds 
much light upon the methods which teachers commonly follow 
or recommend should be followed in securing the attainment of 
certain disciplinary objectives. Several desirable qualities, 
such as orderly procedure, accuracy and thoroughness, were 
selected as subjects for these “group interviews” and teach- 
ers were asked to indicate: (1) what methods they used or be- 
°The decrease in the use of translations in the fourth year when Vergil 
is read is explained by the author as probably due to the elimination of 
those pupils who were unable or unwilling to prepare their lessons with- 
out such illegitimate help or to their greater interest in Vergil. In sup- 
porting his second hypothesis the author recalls the fact that first place 
in order of preference was given to Vergil by nearly two and one-half 
times as many pupils as to all the other Latin authors combined, 
10 See M. M. Dunbar, “An Analysis of Group Interviews Showing Methods 


Used in Latin Classes to Teach Certain Transferable Qualities,” a master’s 
dissertation at the University of Pittsburgh, 1923. 


176 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


lieved should be used to develop these qualities in connection 
with the study of Latin itself; and (2) what methods they 
used or believed should be used to train pupils to carry over 
these habits to the study of other subjects and to situations . 
outside the class-room. 

The suggestions made with reference to the development of 
the habit of orderly procedure, for example, emphasize the 
desirability of training pupils to follow some regular method 
in attacking the various problems which arise in their study 
of Latin. Among the suggestions most frequently made are 
the following: 


Orderly procedure on the part of the teacher. 

Careful assignments embodying the principle of orderly 
procedure. 

Supervised study with emphasis upon orderly procedure in 
attacking the problems involved. 

Insistence upon grasping the thought of a Latin sentence 
in the Latin order. 

Insistence upon the use of idiomatic English in translation. 

Systematic organization of inflections. 


For the development of increased ability to reason cor- 
rectly in connection with the study of Latin the following sug- 
gestions are made by teachers: 


Insistence that the thought of a Latin sentence be grasped 
in the Latin order. 

Insistence that the thought of a Latin paragraph be 
grasped before translation is attempted. ; 

Insistence that a translation should make sense. 

Development of Latin syntactical principles with the help 
of English. 

“mphasis upon functional questions in syntax. 

Giving the pupils no more help than is really needed in 
working out the thought of a Latin sentence. 

Emphasis upon the thought connection of a given passage 
with what has preceded and with what will probably 
follow. 


METHODS Lert 


In their answers to the question as to the methods which 
they believe should be employed to encourage the spread of 
these and other desirable habits teachers indicate that they 
believe in such transfer, but “many have very vague ideas as 
to how this transfer is to be accomplished,” and many seem 
to assume that the transfer is entirely automatic. Among the 
specific methods suggested by teachers for developing gener- 
alized habits are the following: 

Explanation of the value of such habits in every-day life. 


Illustrations of the use of such habits in every-day life. 

Creating in the pupils a desire for the possession of such 
habits. 

Identifying the procedure taught in Latin with that fol- 
lowed in other subjects. 


The general conclusions of the author are as follows: 
“With psychological opinion almost unanimous that transfer 
is possible, no teacher of Latin need hesitate to strive con- 
sciously to make Latin a means for teaching accuracy, sus- 
tained attention, orderly procedure, thoroughness, and rea- 
soning—dqualities that are valuable in any scheme of life. But 
since the conditions under which transfer takes place cannot 
at the present time be accurately stated, an increased respon- 
sibility is put on Latin teachers to codperate with every ef- 
fort to ascertain these conditions by experimentation and 
otherwise to attempt to discover those devices and methods 
which will be effectual.” 


AN ANALYSIS OF EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 


It may be assumed that the explicit aims of any subject will 
be expressed in the tests and examinations given to measure 
the extent to which pupils have attained those aims. In order 
to secure additional light upon the relative importance which 
teachers in actual practice attach to the various aims con- 
sidered valid a large number of local examination question 


178 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


papers was collected from all parts of the country and ana- 
lyzed. The Pound-Helle study** based upon an analysis of 
273 sets of such questions shows the extent to which the 
various objectives of Latin are represented in these exam- 
inations and compares the results with the relative importance 
attached theoretically to the same objectives by the teachers 
who filled out the score-card.*” The results show a marked dis- 
crepancy between theory and practice, though it may fairly 
be questioned whether it is a valid assumption that written 
examinations should involve all the objectives aimed at in 
a course. Thus 86% of first-year papers, 94% of second- 
year papers, 97% of third-year papers and 88% of 
fourth-year papers contained prepared passages for trans- 
lation, while 11%, 42%, 48% and 53% of the papers of the 
first, second, third and fourth years respectively contained 
passages to be translated at sight. 89% of first-year papers, 
98% of second-year papers, 90% of third-year papers and 
69% of fourth-year papers contained questions on formal 
syntax; 100% of first-year papers, 74% of second-year pa- 
pers, 54% of third-year papers and 26% of fourth-year pa- 
pers contained formal questions on inflections. The type of 
questions asked indicates that pupils are justified in assum- 
ing that what is expected of them in the reading of a Latin 
passage is ability to translate the passage into English and 
to answer questions on syntax and inflectional forms illus- 
trated in the passage. No paper of any year contained a ques- 
tion which would test the pupil’s capacity to determine the 
meaning of an unfamiliar word, to solve an unfamiliar syn- 
tactical construction, or to read Latin as Latin. 

11See L. G. Pound and R. H. Helle, “An Investigation of Objectives in 
Teaching Secondary Latin,” a joint master’s dissertation at the Ohio State 
University, 1923. See also Part II, Chapter IV, Section 13. 

12See A. D. Hare, “An Evaluation of Objectives in the Teaching of 


Latin,” The Classical Journal, XIX (December, 1923), pp. 155-165. See 
also Part II, Chapter III, Section 3. 


METHODS iy 


Questions on the thought-content of prepared passages 
were found in.none of the first-year papers, in 14% of second- 
year papers, in 34% of third-year papers and in 597% of 
fourth-year papers ; while similar questions on sight passages 
were found in none of the papers of the first and third years, 
in 1% of second-year papers and in 2% of fourth-year 
papers. 

The following tabulation gives for each of the four years 
the percentage of papers containing questions relating to 
various ultimate objectives: 


Ist Qnd 3rd 4th 
Year Year Year Year 


History and institutions of the Romans 3% 52% 82% 96% 


Literary qualities of Latin authors 0% 0% 30% 94% 
English derivatives 42% 27% 23% 29% 
Characteristics of authors read 1% 20% 34% 25% 
Effective English through adequate translation 1% 14% 1% 2% 
Latin phrases, quotations, etc. 6% 38% 0% 0% 
Elements of literary style in English 0% 0% 0% 4% 
Technical terms in English 0% 1% 0% 0% 


The following aims which the teachers filling out the gen- 
eral questionnaire consider valid for the course as a whole 
were not represented in any paper in any year: 


English grammar 

English spelling 

General principles of language structure 
Ability to master foreign languages. 


The authors’ conclusions are as follows: “In general this 
study has brought out: (1) that relatively few teachers asked 
questions which pertain to the majority of these nineteen 
objectives ; (2) that there was little or no consensus of opinion, 
indicated by the votes cast, regarding these objectives; (3) 
that there was very little relation between what objectives 
the teacher considered should be employed, as indicated by 
the score-cards, and what were actually used in the exami- 
nation papers.” 


180 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


It is certain that the pupil’s estimate of the relative value 
of the various objectives in the study of Latin and the con- 
sequent attention which he will devote to them in the inde- 
pendent preparation of his lessons will depend in large meas- 
ure upon the extent to which questions designed to test his 
attainment of these objectives are included in periodic tests 


and final examinations. 


CHANGES IN METHOD SUGGESTED BY COLLEGE GRADUATES 


A special questionnaire was sent to those college graduates 
who in answering the O’Shea questionnaire reported that they 
had studied Latin one or more years in secondary school or 
college. Those receiving this second questionnaire were asked 
to suggest any changes in the teaching of school Latin which 
they believed would make the course more valuable. The chief 
changes recommended were: | 


More emphasis upon the historical-cultural values, includ- 
ing more attention to the literary qualities of authors 
read. 

More emphasis upon the element of human interest in the 
teaching of Latin so as to include more information 
about the daily life of the Romans. 

More emphasis upon the value of a knowledge of the po- 
litical and social problems of the Romans as an aid to 
the solution of present-day problems of similar char- 
acter. 

More emphasis upon the relation of Latin to English, es- 
pecially in the contribution which the study of Latin 
may make to a knowledge of English derivatives and of 
the principles of English grammar. 

More emphasis upon ability to read Latin as Latin and 
less emphasis upon mere translation. 

More use of oral Latin. 

Less emphasis upon the formal side, especially upon formal 
grammar and syntax. 

Less emphasis upon “‘covering the ground” and less haste, 
especially in the elementary stages. 


METHODS 181 


More emphasis upon the content of the Latin read and more 
extensive reading of the classical authors in translation. 

More emphasis upon the value of the study of Latin for 
the insight it gives into the development of language in 
general. 

More emphasis upon developing in the pupil a conscious- 
ness of the potential values to be secured from the study 
of Latin. 


Section 4. General Principles Determining the Selection of 
Methods of Teaching Secondary Latin 


On the basis of the examination of the present content and 
methods contained in the preceding section and in Section 3 
of the preceding chapter we recommend acceptance of the 
following general principles for determining methods to be em- 
ployed in the teaching of Latin. 

1. The methods of teaching should be such as will develop 
in the pupil correct habits of study. The methods adopted by 
the teacher can be effective in developing the pupil’s power 
to understand and read Latin or in developing valuable gen- 
eral habits just in so far as they create corresponding meth- 
ods of study on the part of the pupil. Upon the development 
of sound habits of study, permanent and general in their 
effect, the utmost emphasis should be placed. Not simply what 
the pupil does under the immediate direction or personal su- 
pervision of the teacher, but what he does by himself in his 
own study of assigned lessons is the final test which any sound 
method of teaching must successfully meet. ; 

2. The methods of teaching should be such as will contrib- 
ute directly or indirectly to the progressive development of 
power to read and understand Latin as Latin and at the same 
time cultivate in the pupil desirable general mental habits, 
increase his fund of information, stimulate his appreciation 
of good literature, inculcate right social attitudes and train 
and encourage him to apply independently facts and processes 


182 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


acquired in the study of Latin in other fields of intellectual 
activity. The development of these immediate and ultimate 
objectives should be continuous, concurrent and interde- 
pendent. » 

3. The methods of teaching should be such as to utilize 
constantly and to the fullest extent the previous experience 
of the pupil.** In the teaching of Latin, especially in the ele- 
mentary stages, this involves a knowledge on the part of the 
teacher of the previous linguistic experience of his pupils in 
English and a careful selection of those elements which will 
furnish the best basis for learning the vocabulary, syntax, 
forms, word-order, and general sentence structure of the new 
language to be learned. 

4. The methods of teaching should be such as to enlist the 
interest of the pupil to the fullest extent consistent with the 
educational ends in view. Other things being equal the pupil 
will acquire more readily, retain longer, and apply more 
widely those facts and processes in which his interest is most 


13“Tt is recognized that Latin cannot stand as a subject by itself; that 
which is isolated has no mental adhesion. Every new addition to knowledge 
must be linked on to the ideas already subsisting in the mind. The pupil 
who is to be introduced to a new subject always brings with him a cer- 
tain stock of knowledge which bears some relation or other, however 
vague, to the new subject. The teacher’s first duty, therefore, is to bring 
into the mental focus by skilful questioning those ideas which are ser- 
viceable for the new acquirement, and take care that with each fresh ac- 
quisition the closest connection is established both between the new ideas 
in themselves and between them and the knowledge previously existing. 
... With us too frequently the codrdination of knowledge is left to 
manage itself in the child’s mind. No one can study German schools or 
their treatises on methods of instruction and the planning of curricula 
without being impressed with the skill and care with which one subject 
is linked up with another, and preparation is made beforehand for each 
new Stage of progress.” From “The Teaching of Classics in Secondary 
Schools in Germany,” A Special Report on Educational Subjects printed 
_ for the Board of Education by Wyman and Sons, London (1910), Vol. 
20, pp. 126, 128. 


METHODS 183 


keenly aroused.’* Pupils may be depended on to show a rela- 
tively greater interest in class-room questions which are func- 
tional rather than formal in character. The Grise study” 
shows a distinct preference on the part of pupils for the fol- 
lowing types of question in the class recitation on an as- 
signed passage: 

Tell the story up to the point where the new lesson begins. 

Tell what connection this passage has with what has gone 

before. 

Tell briefly the story contained in the advance lesson. 

Questions on inflections, such as “How does the English 

word ‘mission’ help you to tell the fourth principal part 
of mitto?” 

Questions on English derivatives, such as “What is the 

meaning of ‘approximate’ (derived from proxima) ?” 

In the case of every type of question listed above a larger 
number of the pupils stated that they liked or thought they 
would like to do the sort of thing involved in the question than 
reported that they had commonly been asked to do it. 


THE TRANSFER OF TRAINING 


It is reasonable to believe that almost any secondary 
school pupil of fair ability and diligence will benefit to some 
degree by the many casual contacts which occur when he 


14“Tf we are going to achieve the second of our aims—the ability to read 
—we must have first-year books that contain texts which, while illustrat- 
ing skilfully points of grammar, constitute a connected story, a story with 
a meaning. This is an absolute necessity: first, to train the student to 
consider Latin as a vehicle for thought; second, to enable him to read 
connected text; third, to give the teacher an opportunity for the oral 
drill that is so necessary to a mastery of forms and vocabulary; fourth, 
to stimulate the interest of the student in Latin. The most important 
lesson that modern pedagogy has revealed to us is the necessity of inter- 
esting, if we wish to succeed in our teaching.” E. B. de Sauzé in “Problems 
of First-year Latin,” The Classical Journal, XVI (March, 1921), p. 344. 
15See F. C. Grise, “Content and Method in High School Latin,” a doc- 
tor’s dissertation at George Peabody College for Teachers, 1924. See also 
Part II, Chapter III, Section 6. 


184 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


pursues the study of two closely related subjects. On the 
other hand the extent of this benefit by transfer, whether 
between more closely or less closely related subjects, is 
increased or lessened according to his degree of apprecia- 
tion of the meanings of these contacts, and this in turn 1s 
affected by the kind of teaching he receives. Therefore in so 
far as attainment of the ultimate objectives involves transfer 
of training, the methods of teaching should be such as to cre- 
ate conditions most favorable for such transfer. It is clear 
that at the present time experimental data do not warrant 
final conclusions concerning the extent and definite method 
of transfer of training from Latin to other fields, although 
the possibility of such transfer and of its increase by use of 
suitable methods is recognized by practically all psycholo- 
gists. Accordingly, our particular conclusions relating te 
transfer will necessarily be subject to such modification as 
fuller experience may ultimately suggest. The practical 
recommendations in this report connected with the question 
of transfer are based upon the indications of the tests anc 
upon the views of psychologists as expressed in the Sympo- 
sium on the Disciplinary Objectives of Latin.*® Our positior 
may be stated as follows: 

1. Automatic transfer is a function of the intelligence ot 
the pupil and comparatively few young pupils possess capaci: 
ty for independent generalization in a sufficient degree to jus- 
tify the adoption of methods of teaching Latin which assume 
the occurrence of automatic transfer to a large extent. ‘The 
less we assume automaticity of spread and the more we work 
for it, the more certain we will be that our procedure is cor. 
rect.””* “All experiments in transfer tend to show that trans: 


16 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 4. 

17 This quotation and those which follow in this discussion are take 
from the Symposium of Psychologists on Disciplinary Objectives o 
Latin. See Part II, Chapter III, Section 4. 


METHODS 185 


fer is automatic only when applications are so nearly identical 
that they are a matter of course.”’ 

2. For the great majority of pupils studying Latin the 
development of the habit of generalization and consequent 
transfer calls for continued practice in it by teacher and 
pupil. This involves: 

a. The development of the desired attitude or trait in a va- 
riety of situations connected with the teaching of Latin 
itself. “The standards set for the preparation of the reg- 
ular Latin work should involve and exemplify the more 
general abilities.” “One thing is certain that the traits 
desired cannot be generalized unless they are actually de- 
veloped by the specific course in question.” “‘Call the at- 
tention of the student to the trait, habit or attitude that 
actually produces good results in Latin.” 


b. The conscious generalization of these attitudes or traits 
into desirable general habits or aims, putting the thing 
to be transferred into its most generally usable form. 
“This implies that almost everything that has a specific 
aim should, if possible, be generalized.” “Transfer can 
be increased by increasing the consciousness or explicit- 
ness of the common elements.” “The more a trait is 
brought into consciousness, the more likely will be the 
transfer of that trait.” ‘*The teacher must have a definite 
purpose to effect the transfer and it will occur more suc- 
cessfully if the students are also aware of the end sought.” 
“TY think it very desirable that elements to be transferred 
be brought to the focus of attention, generalized and the 
application illustrated.” “If we were to point out the im- 
portance of accuracy, high degree of concentration, and 
clearness of thinking as applied to other fields of study, 
I believe we should succeed in very greatly increasing the 
amount of transfer.” “It is possible to do teaching in 


186 


THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


such a way that the student’s horizon is distinctly lir 
ited by the mode of teaching. If the associations are lir 
ited and rigid, then not only is there no transfer but tl 
student’s experience is narrowed by the type of teac'! 
ing in that he will never be willing later to take a ne 
point of view. To my thinking a great deal of the Lat 
that has been taught in this country not only is certa 
not to transfer in an affirmative way, but narrows tl 
student’s horizon.” 


. Explicit training of the pupil in applying these habit 


traits and aims to situations not connected with Lat 
and in discovering independently new applications. “T! 
more clearly the transfer possibilities are seen by tl 
student, the greater will be the spread.” “‘It is most in 
portant to have the individuals concerned conscious. 
attempt to utilize the power and habits formed in a stuc 
of Latin in other fields.” “The amount of spread will | 
determined by the amount of such work actually going 
in the pupil rather than by the amount done by tl 
teacher.” “It requires a teacher who has interests outsi 
the subject and who is acquainted with the methods « 
successful teaching in fields other than Latin.” “Su; 
gesting to the pupil other fields in which the same trait 
habits and attitudes would be helpful to him should resu 
in a very much greater transfer than at present.” ‘‘An 
method is favorable that would tend to encourage tl 
use of these traits in other than Latin situations.” 


. The development in the pupil of strong enough motiv: 


to insure a controlling desire for the transfer in gener: 
and for each type and field in particular. ““Much will d 
pend upon the student’s attitude. Those who persistent. 
revolt against it of course will receive less than tho 
who feel its value.” “The worth of a trait must be clear 
appreciated.” ‘*The ‘spread’ of these habits may be lir 


METHODS 187 


ited, however, by mutual inhibitions or by a bad general 
‘set,’ such as might be represented by disgust or distaste 
for the subject from over-usage or from monotonous 
grind.” “I think genuine appreciation of meaning and 
significance is the basic factor here.” “I am inclined to 
think that the amount of spread depends pretty much 
on the interests or tastes that are aroused. Given an in- 
terest or attitude, the individual tends to take advantage 
of opportunities for further application.” 


3. When a particular habit, trait or aim has been general- 
zed and has been repeatedly applied to other fields it may be 
xpected to become automatic. To use a homely figure, we 
elieve that the ordinary pump has to be primed to insure a 
ow of water, but do not believe that the extent of flow will 
e limited to the amount used in priming. ‘‘The spread ap- 
ears at first to be largely conscious, but, as with other mental 
rocesses, tends to become automatic.” ‘My impression is 
hat much of the permanent residue of such training is sub- 
equently ‘automatic’ in its function.” 

The views regarding transfer here set forth are in agree- 
1ent with those contained in the report of the Committee on 
lassical Languages of the Commission of the National Edu- 
ation Association on the Reorganization of Secondary Edu- 
ation. The following paragraphs are taken from that re- 
at... 

“Hence the Committee suggests that teachers of Latin 
and those responsible for the administration of the 
schools be on their guard against (1) expecting too much 
transfer, (2) expecting too little transfer, (3) expect- 
ing transfer to be automatic. Pending the establishment 
of more conclusive theories of the transfer of improved 
efficiency, the Committee recommends a careful analy- 


3 Quoted by A. J. Inglis in Principles of Secondary Education, p. 462. 


188 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


sis of the mental traits employed in the study of Latin, 
to determine what mental traits it is desirable to trans- 
fer from that field to other fields, what traits are actu- 
ally transferred, and what other traits may be so trans- 
ferred. 

“The Committee expresses its belief that among the 
mental traits involved in the study of Latin wherein 
transfer is most to be expected will be found the follow- 
ing: habits of mental work, tendency to neglect distract- 
ing and irrelevant elements, ideals of thoroughness, ideals 
of accuracy and precision, and proper attitudes towards 
study as an intellectual achievement. 

“The Committee further holds that in proportion as 
such potential values are consciously the aim of the work 
in Latin and are consciously developed, in like propor- 
tion conditions are favorable to their realization as ac- 
tual results of the work in Latin.” 


Section 5. Specific Recommendations in Regard to Methods 
A. READING 


1. The Comprehension of Latin 


The methods to be employed in teaching pupils to read and 
understand Latin should satisfy the criteria outlined in the 
preceding section, that is, they should be such as to develop 
in the pupil correct habits of independent study, to contrib- 
ute both to the progressive development of power to read 
Latin as Latin and to the concurrent attainment of the ulti- 
mate objectives which teachers consider valid for their pu- 
pils, to enlist the interest of the pupils, and to encourage the 
use of the facts and processes acquired in the study of Latin 
in activities outside the Latin class. 


METHODS 189 


READING IN THE LATIN WORD ORDER 


The majority of teachers filling out the general question- 
naire express the belief that the Latin sentence should be at- 
tacked in the Latin order. Nevertheless a majority of these 
teachers follow in practice the analytic method. The reason 
seems to be largely the fact that the opportunity for the use 
of apperception’ in teaching pupils to read and comprehend 
Latin as Latin is much less than in the teaching of the ele- 
ments of Latin. The pupil’s previous experience in the com- 
prehension of normal English sentences does not furnish a 
basis for developing the ability to comprehend Latin in the 
Latin order; for it is in word order and sentence structure 
that the genius of Latin differs most radically from that of 
English. In fact, much of the difficulty which pupils common- 
ly have in developing power to read and comprehend Latin is 
due to an unconscious attempt to recast the Latin sentence 
into the order familiar to them in English. Only such sen- 
tences in English as depend for their interpretation upon 
the grammatical form of certain words rather than upon 
word order will furnish English analogies for illustrating the 
genius of the Latin language in this respect, such as ‘““Whom 
therefore ye ignorantly worship him declare I unto you’’; 
or “Him thus answered then his bold compeer.” 

We believe that ability to read Latin as Latin, that is, to 
get hold of the sense in the Latin order without translation, 
can be developed only by means of persistent training on the 
basis of some definitely conceived method to be followed con- 
sistently throughout the secondary course. We recommend, 
therefore, that there should be daily practice in comprehen- 
sion at sight in accordance with the method adopted and that 
every possible effort should be made to insure the pupil’s use 
of this method in his independent preparation of assigned 


19 By appercepticn is meant here the conscious use of known elements in 
the solution of problems containing unknown elements. 


190 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


lessons. Without indicating preference for any one special 
method we consider it desirable to reproduce descrip- 
tions of commendable types of class-room procedure which 
have appeared in various published articles and in reports of 
various committees and which, however much they may differ 
in detail, have the common object of teaching pupils to grasp 
the thought of a Latin sentence in the Latin order. These de- 
scriptions are given in Appendix B at the end of this volume. 

It will be noted in the quotations given in Appendix B that 
strong emphasis is placed upon the fluent oral reading of 
Latin. Without question any serious attempt to develop the 
power to take in the sense of a Latin sentence involves from 
the beginning far greater emphasis than is commonly placed 
today upon the development of ability to read Latin aloud, 
and to read it clearly, with regard for natural grouping and 
phrasing and with some attempt at proper expression. 

A first prerequisite for the oral reading of Latin is ability 
to pronounce Latin clearly with readiness and reasonable ac- 
curacy. We recommend, however, that this ability be ac- 
quired through imitation and constant practice, in fact by a 
sort of gradual absorption, rather than through the study of 
rules. Writing very simple Latin from dictation is also rec- 
ommended as an excellent method, especially in earlier stages 
of the work, of helping the pupil to form an automatic asso- 
ciation between the spoken word and the printed or written 
symbol. The memorizing and reproduction in oral or written 
form of sentences and paragraphs, comprehension of very 
simple Latin on hearing it, questions and answers in Latin, 
and the use of Latin songs, dialogues and plays are other 
methods of overcoming the pupil’s auditional dread of the new 
language and of helping him to realize that language is funda- 
mentally a matter of the ear and of the voice. Furthermore, 
an early and thorough training in the oral use of Latin is es- 


METHODS 191 


sential to a fluent and intelligent reading of Latin, whether 
this reading be audible or silent. 

In this connection we wish to express our belief that em- 
phasis in teaching should be placed on ability to read with 
proper expression and with due regard to grouping of words 
rather than upon a meticulous attention to marking of quan- 
tities. In the reading of Latin poetry, likewise, more emphasis 
should be placed upon fluent and expressive metrical reading 
than upon the mechanics of scansion. 

It is assumed that the Roman method of pronunciation will 
be employed in the reading of Latin. We recommend, however, 
that pupils be taught to pronounce Latin words, phrases and 
proper names domesticated in English in accordance with 
their English pronunciation. 

We recommend that practice in comprehending Latin at 
sight be included in the work of every recitation. Ninety-seven 
per cent of the teachers filling out the general questionnaire 
indicated their belief that sight translation should be made a 
regular part of the work, and a majority of these teachers 
expressed the opinion that from one-fifth to one-fourth of the 
class time should be devoted to this type of work. It is evident 
from the report given by fourth-year pupils who answered 
the question blank on content and method that class-room 
practice in many schools needs to be improved in this respect. 
Thirteen per cent of these pupils report that they have never 
received training in methods of attack upon the advance 
assignment through reading at sight in class; 19% report 
that they received this training “sometimes”; 37% once or 
twice a week, and only about 30% stated that they received 
this training as often as three times a week. 

We further recommend that fluent oral reading of the 
Latin be required as the first step in the interpretation of 
a Latin sentence or paragraph, and that every effort be made 


192 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


to see that the pupils follow this method of attack in their 
independent preparation of assigned reading. Seventy-five per 
cent of the teachers filling out the questionnaire consider read- 
ing Latin ‘aloud before translation one of the most effective 
methods of developing the pupil’s ability to comprehend the 
thought of a Latin passage. However, only 43% of the pupils 
filling out the question blank on content and method reported 
that they were commonly asked in class recitation to read the 
Latin aloud, and only 7% stated that they followed this prac- 
tice in their independent study of a Latin passage. 

Oral use of very easy Latin in brief phrases or sentences, 
especially in the form of question and answer between teacher 
and pupil or between pupil and pupil, will help to give quicker 
facility in the reading and understanding of Latin. Any 
teacher of fair ability can acquire in two or three months a 
large enough store of Latin talk to make this effective. The 
skill thus developed will grow rapidly with daily use. 

We are not unmindful that literary classical Latin is the 
standard for reading and writing Latin and that Anglicized 
Latin is not good Latin reading. Nevertheless there should 
be much freedom in talking Latin so long as the usage does 
not actually violate the canons of good spoken Latin, the 
Latin used in the daily talk of cultivated Roman men, women 
and children. In this connection it should also be noted that 
much late Latin is good Latin, such as the medieval vow popu- 
li vox dei, and even such highly modern locutions as pocula 
pomeridiana for “afternoon tea” and tempus luciservans 
for “daylight saving time,” and that fabula motoria will do 
well enough for “‘the movies.” We may even go a step farther 
on occasions when phrases of Law Latin or Church Latin 
well express the thought and may use them whether or not 
they conform closely to accepted canons of spoken Latin. 
Here as everywhere living directness is better than inanimate 
precision. Flat barbarisms are of course to be avoided. Yet 


METHODS 193 


Latin in daily talk need not be Ciceronian to be correct. Eras- 
mus, a master in style, is a fine instance of this, and we need 
not hesitate to follow his lead in using Latin as a living lan- 
guage. Late Latin, pagan, patristic, medieval and modern, is 
rich in good as well as in poor material. The good material 
should be selected and used. It will do much to give variety. 
It will do more in giving young students the beginnings of in- 
sight into the long unbroken continuity of Latin, its adapta- 
bility for expressing modern ideas and its immense place and 
influence in human history. 

It is generally admitted that the processes of speaking, 
reading and writing, especially when taken together, strength- 
en each other and furnish the most effective training for un- 
derstanding any language. In this way the ear, voice, eye and 
hand combine to fix deeply in consciousness the words spoken, 
heard, seen and written. Practice in writing Latin should 
therefore accompany the reading and oral use of Latin from 
the start. It helps to make the pupil’s knowledge exact and 
his practice correct, and thereby also helps to give him more 
certainty and confidence in his reading of Latin as Latin. Its 
beginnings should be extremely simple and its development 
very gradual. When the pupil has advanced so far as to be 
able in the third year of the course to write correctly single 
sentences considerably simpler than the prose Latin he is 
reading, the primary purpose of his school practice in writing 
Latin is accomplished, namely, the development of ability to 
write simple Latin as an aid to reading Latin. Writing peri- 
odic Latin is too much to expect or even to desire, except in 
the case of pupils who have a gift for composition. While, 
therefore, we strongly urge that the simpler Latin writing be 
required for the purpose stated, we believe there is neither 
time nor justification for exacting more in the four-year 
course. 

As has already been shown the majority of the teachers fill- 


194 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


ing out the general questionnaire are in agreement with our 
recommendations that the pupils should be trained to take in 
the thought of a Latin sentence in the Latin order before 
translating. Methods of procedure most highly recommended 
are in order of preference: 
Training pupils to take in the thought of each word-group 
as it appears and then to translate it. 
Training pupils to grasp the meaning of the entire sen- 
tence in the Latin order and then to translate it. 
Training pupils to read a Latin sentence and to answer 
questions upon it without translating it. 


The methods to be employed in testing the pupil’s com- 
prehension of the thought of a sentence or paragraph, 
whether prepared or at sight, will naturally depend upon the 
difficulty of the passage and upon the kind and amount of 
training which the pupils have had. In the case of very sim- 
ple, easy sentences or even more extended passages an intel- 
ligent oral reading in Latin may be all that is necessary, 
especially if pupils are encouraged to ask questions about 
points that are not clear. We especially recommend the reg- 
ular use of carefully prepared questions on the thought of the 
passage. Questions for this purpose should be so constructed 
as to require for a correct answer the understanding of a whole 
sentence or series of sentences and not such as can be answered 
from a knowledge of only one or two words or phrases.”” The 


complete adequacy of this method of testing comprehension - 


is indicated by the fact that the very high correlation of .975 
_was found between the scores on the Ullman-Kirby test when 
taken as a comprehension test and when taken by the same 
pupils as a translation test. The same correlation of .975 was 
also found between the scores on the Ullman-Kirby test taken 
as a comprehension test and the Brown sentence translation 


20 For examples of questions of this type see the Ullman-Kirby Latin 
Comprehension Test, Part II, Chapter 3, Section 2. 


METHODS 195 


test”? taken by the same pupils. The practice of testing com- 
prehension by means of questions of this type has two ad- 
vantages over exclusive dependence upon translation: (1) it 
places the emphasis in the preparation upon a perception of 
the thought rather than upon the superficial use of words; 
and (2) it makes it possible for a class to do the reading 
assignment more rapidly and thus provides more time for the 
careful criticism and revision of such portions of the assign- 
ment as are actually to be translated in class. 

Questions in Latin to be answered in Latin, which for other 
important reasons we believe should be a part of class-room 
procedure, and telling in English the story contained in the 
passage, preferably without referring to the Latin text, are 
other useful methods of testing the pupil’s understanding of 
the Latin without having recourse to translation. 

The function of translation as an important exercise fol- 
lowing the comprehension of the thought in Latin will be dis- 
cussed later. It is clear, however, that in actual practice trans- 
lation is also frequently regarded as a means by which the 
thought is to be comprehended or as the chief means of 
testing the pupil’s comprehension of the thought. Thus, while 
the great majority of teachers answering the general ques- 
tionnaire advise training pupils to take in the thought of a 
Latin sentence in the Latin order, over half of them also ex- 
press the opinion that pupils should be trained to get the 
meaning of a Latin sentence by translating each word in the 
order in which it comes in Latin, and about one-third say that 
pupils should be required to translate prepared assignments 
“literally.” We believe that these apparently inconsistent 
views are the expression of real confusion as to the various 
functions of “‘translation” and of a corresponding confusion 
in the use of the term which seriously affects class-room prac- 


21 See H. A. Brown, Latin in Secondary Schools, p. 31. 


196 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


_ ee i ie 


tice and the pupil’s method of study. Translation of Latin in- _ 


to English may and under present conditions of content and 
methods does commonly serve three different uses: (1) as a 
method by which the pupil works out the meaning of a Latin 
sentence or paragraph; (2) as a method by which the pupil 
shows in class recitation or examination that he has worked 
out the meaning of a Latin sentence or paragraph; and (3) 
as a method of training the pupil in English expression. 

We have already expressed our belief that the first of these 
three uses is unsound in theory and wasteful in practice and 
that the second, if it constitutes the sole or even the chief 
means of testing the pupil’s understanding of a reading as- 
signment, inevitably encourages wrong methods of study and 
inhibits to a large extent the proper development of the nor- 
mal and legitimate use of translation as a sure training in 
English expression. 

We believe that the application of the one word “transla- 
tion” to practices so divergent as those just described leads 
to confusion of standards, and accordingly recommend that 
the word “translation” be limited in its application to a version 
of the passage which conforms to the genius of the English 
language and that teachers and pupils who find it desirable 
to make use of intermediate versions which employ English 
words but which follow in word order or idiom the genius of 


the Latin language apply to such versions some such term as 


9922 


a ‘“‘metaphrase” or a “construe. 


22“Construing” is a very common practice in the schools of Germany and 
France but “great stress is laid on distinguishing the two versions—the 
construe and the translation. ... But the aim of construing is to make 
itself dispensable as soon as possible. In the Upper Forms it is equivalent 
to a severe reprimand when a pupil, getting into a tangle with a sen- 
tence, hears from his teacher in tones of thunder: ‘Dann konstruiren Sie 
gefdlligst”” From the “Teaching of the Classics in the Schools of Ger- 
many,” a Special Report on Educational Subjects published for the Board 
of Education by Wyman and Sons, London (1910), Volume 20, p. 140, 





METHODS | 197 


While recommending that a reading method following the 
Latin word order be regularly employed by the pupil in his 
attack upon a Latin sentence, we recognize the fact that in the 
interpretation of difficult passages it will at times be neces- 
sary to resort to a detailed analysis. We urge, however, that 
in all such cases the pupil should be made clearly to under- | 
stand the difference between this process and the reading 
method to be regularly employed. 


THE ANALYTICAL METHOD 


A minority of teachers filling out the general questionnaire 
advise training pupils ‘to look first for the verb and trans- 
late that, and then fit in the rest of the sentence,” or “to look 
first for the subject, then for the verb, and then for the ob- 
ject.” We believe that the Latin-order method of attack upon 
the Latin sentence is far better adapted to the development 
of real power to read Latin as Latin. However, the analytical 
method is at any rate definite and any definite method con- 
sistently followed by pupils and teachers will produce facility 
in the use of that method. It is vitally important that what- 
ever method be adopted, pupils should be made conscious of 
the method and should be trained through constant practice 
in sight work to use the method in the independent prepara- 
tion of their lessons. 

The following “Directions for Translating,” taken from 
Welch and Duffield’s Eutropius (Macmillan), definitely ex- 
emplify the analytical method: 


1. Pick out the finite verb (the predicate) and find out its 
voice, mood, tense, number and person. 

2. Find the subject or subjects with which it agrees. Trans- 
late. 

3. If the verb is incomplete, find the object or completion. 
Translate. 

4. See if the subject is enlarged by any of the methods men- 
tioned below; if it is, translate, taking the enlargements 
with the subject. 


198 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


5. See if the object is enlarged; if it is, translate, taking 
the enlargements with the object. 

6. Take the extensions of the predicate. Translate. 

7. Translate finally, putting in the introductory conjunc- 
tions or other words not yet taken. 


GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 


We believe that the general method we have recommended 
for training pupils to comprehend Latin as Latin will at the 
same time contribute more effectively to the development of 
desirable general habits of reflective thinking than the use of 
the analytical method. Whether our purpose in teaching a 
pupil how to attack the Latin sentence is the development of 
his ability to read and understand Latin or the development 
of his general intellectual power, we are led to the same con- 
clusion as to the general method to be employed. If the object 
is to teach pupils to read Latin, it will be agreed that the 
best method of approach will be one which approximates 
most closely the process by which the Romans themselves per- 
ceived the thought of the Latin sentence; or, if the aim is de- 
velopment of mental power, this purpose can best be attained 
through training in processes that teach a pupil to control 
the operations of his own mind and to form his final judg- 
ments logically and gradually from the evidence furnished 
by the Latin sentence as it proceeds and develops. Treated in 
this way every Latin sentence becomes an exercise in consec- 
utive and self-correcting thinking instead of a vexing puzzle. 
Only in this way can the pupil gain the most valuable train- 
ing the comprehension of the Latin sentence can give, namely, 
constant practice in suspending judgment, in noting and de- 
fining the limits within which the final judgment must fall, in 
estimating the relative value of evidence as it accumulates and 
in developing a lively but none the less scientific imagination.™ 


23 “Reflective thinking, in short, means judgment suspended during further 
inquiry; the most important factor in the training of good mental habits 


METHODS 199 


Accordingly, we believe that the disciplinary values implicit 
in the progressive development of ability to comprehend Latin 
will be best attained through a careful training in taking 
in the thought of a Latin sentence as it develops, and in thus 
thinking to some degree as a Roman thought. 

The teachers answering the general questionnaire are also 
of opinion that methods of study which best develop ability 
to read Latin are the best methods for insuring attainment of 
the disciplinary objectives. Ninety-six per cent of the teach- 
ers believe that the methods employed in teaching pupils to 
comprehend Latin should be such as to contribute to the 
attainment of the disciplinary objectives and the methods 
which they believe will contribute most effectively to this end 
are in order of preference as follows: 

‘Training pupils to grasp the meaning of an entire sen- 
tence in the Latin order and then to translate the sen- 
tence as a whole. 

Training pupils to take in the thought of each word-group 
as it appears and then to translate it. 

Training pupils to read a Latin sentence and to answer 
questions upon it without translating it. 

We recommend that much more attention be given to a full 
understanding of the thought-content of the reading. We 
make this recommendation both because of the belief that 
pupils should be taught to regard language primarily as a 
means of conveying thought and because of the clues 
which a clear understanding of the story up to a given point 
will give for the comprehension of the thought of the passage 
which follows. Almost all the teachers answering the general 
questionnaire express the opinion that emphasis should be 
placed upon the story as an aid to the comprehension of 
consists in acquiring the attitude of suspended conclusion, and in mas- 
tering the various methods of searching for new materials to corroborate 
or to refute the first suggestions that occur.” J. Dewey in How We Think, 
p. 13. 


200 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


the thought of a Latin passage. The types of class-room — 
questions recommended by the teachers as valuable for this 
purpose are in order of preference as follows: 
“What causes does Caesar assign for the migration of the 
Helvetians ?” 
“Tell what connection this passage has with what has gone 
before.” 
“Tell the story contained in the passage immediately pre- 
ceding the advance assignment.” 
“What is the chief point in this sentence (or paragraph) ?” 
“Tell briefly the story contained in the advance assign- 
ment.” 


“Who came to Caesar?” “For what purpose?” 
“Tell what you think will follow.” 


It is recommended that teachers should frequently give 
the pupils a general outline of the story contained in the ad- 
vance assignment. The majority of teachers answering the 
general questionnaire advise this practice, but the majority 
of pupils filling out the question blank on content and method 
indicate that they have not been given assistance of this sort. 

One important criterion which we have recommended for 
selection of the reading content of the course is its suitability 
for contributing to the attainment of the historical-cultural 
objectives. Obviously the attainment of these objectives is de- 
pendent upon the use of such methods as will enable the pupil 
to understand the content of the Latin read. 

We have already expressed the opinion that large appre- | 
ciation of the aesthetic qualities of the Latin authors is not to 
be expected in the case of the majority of secondary pupils 
and that for most pupils the development of this appreciation 
will come mainly through the process of translating selected 
passages into English which resembles the style of the origin- 
al. We wish, however, to emphasize our belief that the methods 
recommended for the development of power to read and under- 
stand Latin as Latin are precisely those which will contribute 


METHODS 201 


most effectively to a full and direct appreciation of those 
aesthetic qualities in the works of any author which are in- 
evitably lost in translation. “A translation may be good as 
translation, but it cannot be an adequate translation of the 
original. It may be a good poem; it may be better than the 
original; but it cannot be an adequate reproduction; it can- 
not be the same thing in another language, producing the same 
effect upon the mind. And the cause lies deep in the nature of 


9924 


poetry. 
2. The Translation of Latin into English 


We believe the primary function of translation is the devel- 
opment of the power of thinking and of expressing thought 
through the process of putting into adequate English a 
thought already comprehended in Latin. We have already ex- 
pressed the opinion that a large part of the Latin text should 
be read and comprehended in Latin without translation. For 
such portions of the text as are set for translation a stan- 
dard of translation should be required which will secure exact 
discrimination in the ideas expressed in Latin and an ade- 
quate expression of these ideas in English. 

Over 96% of the teachers answering the general question- 
naire advise regularly requiring pupils to translate prepared 
assignments into idiomatic English. The studies already re- 
ported indicate, however, that this standard has not been gen- 
erally attained in actual practice. It is clear that more sys- 
tematic provision should be made than at present for careful 
criticism and revision of the translations presented by pupils, 
and that the final version should be in really good English.” 
We believe that if such a standard is insisted upon in class- 
24Quoted by H. R. Wilson from Lewes’ Life of Goethe in ‘Translations 


in Relation to the Originals,” The Classical Journal, XVIII (February, 
1923), p. 265. 


25See T. L. Bouscaren, “Artistic Translation as an Aid to English Com- 
_ position,” The Classical Journal, XVIII (April, 1923), pp, 408-416. 


202 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


room practice, it will be reflected in the independent prepara- 
tion of assigned lessons and that exercises of this sort cannot 
fail to increase measurably the pupil’s facility and exactness 
in the use of words. The reduction in the amount of Latin 
text to be read each year and the regular use of methods other 
than translation for testing comprehension of the thought 
should provide the time necessary for securing a fairly high 
standard of English in the translation of those passages which 
are set for translation. 

The effort to secure from pupils a translation of the entire 
reading assignment of average length inevitably results in 
the acceptance of slovenly “translation English,” which, while 
it may not lower the pupil’s actual standard of English, cer- 
tainly will not raise it. Moreover, the pupil in his effort to pre- 
pare a translation of the usual length and difficulty often 
resorts to a mere exchange of verbal symbols with a resulting 
version that not only fails to express the thought of the pas- 
sage in adequate English but often fails to convey any rea- 
sonable meaning.*® Any practice which permits the pupil to 
assume that he may string words together without sem- 
blance of rational meaning is vicious. 

Translation should be neither an uneconomical method of 
awkwardly deciphering the meaning of a Latin sentence or 
paragraph nor the sole or even the chief means of testing the 
pupil’s comprehension of his Latin reading. We believe that 
translation of a single page or paragraph into adequate Eng- 
lish will be of more value to the pupil in developing his power 
to speak and write really good English and his appreciation 
of literature than many pages done into “translation Eng- 
lish.” 

We therefore recommend that only so much of the reading 
assignment at any stage in the course be set for translation 


26 See G. R. Miller and T. H. Briggs, “The Effect of Latin Translation on 
English,” School Review, XX XI (December, 1923), pp. 756-762, 


METHODS 203 


into English as the pupil can be reasonably expected to turn 
into English which will accurately interpret the thought of 
the Latin, will be grammatically correct, and in the case of 
the more adyanced pupils will aproach in style and in beauty 
the original from which it is translated. 

Specific methods which the majority of teachers filling out 
the general questionnaire recommend for teaching translation 
of Latin into English are in order of preference: 

Requiring for the review lesson a higher standard of trans- 

lation than for the advance lesson. 

Making definite suggestions regarding special problems in 

translation (e.g., ablative absolute constructions, rela- 
tive pronouns at the beginning of a sentence). 


Requiring occasional written translation of special assign- 
ments. 


Encouraging criticism by members of the class of the Eng- 
lish used by the pupil translating. 


Over 80% of teachers filling out the general questionnaire 
believe that a distinction should be made in the quality of 
English required of the pupil in translating Caesar, for ex- 
ample, as compared with Cicero and Vergil. Specific elements 
in this requirement for the two later authors are a more 
discriminating choice of words, a more literary style, greater 
freedom in translation, and in particular the use of a more 
rhetorical tone in the translation of Cicero and of a more 
poetical tone in the translation of Vergil. 

In order to furnish teachers with information as to what 
may reasonably be regarded as proper standards of English 
to be required in class-room practice and thus to assist them 
in raising the standard of translation, we have prepared with 
the codperation of about one hundred Latin teachers a 
series of translation “scales,’’ with steps ranging from the 
excellent to the utterly worthless.*’ The level which a majority 


27See S. A. Leonard, “Scales for Improving the Quality of Translation,” 
Part II, Chapter IV, Section 7. 


204 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


of these teachers regarded as representing the lowest accept- 
able translation is also indicated in the scales. It should be 
noted, however, that in the process of working out these scales 
it was disclosed that idiomatic English was not regarded by 
all teachers as a practicable requirement. In using these trans- 
lation scales it will need to be borne in mind that the relative 
position of the various translations included in the scales has 
been affected by this point of view. 


3. Collateral Reading in English 


The importance of emphasizing the thought content of the 
Latin reading material for the purpose of aiding in the actual 
comprehension of the thought has already been pointed out. 
We recommend that the general historical setting of the text 
as a whole should also be continuously emphasized as soon as 
the first connected reading of a Latin author is begun. The 
dominating motive in the mind of a pupil as he attacks an ad- 
vance lesson should be a desire to follow the progress of the 
story. If this purpose is to be attained, he must in the first 
place understand something of the setting of the story. A 
reading of Caesar or Cicero, for example, if not preceded by 
a careful study of the historical background, is almost cer- 
tain to fail of this purpose. It seems quite impossible for the — 
pupil to acquire this necessary background contemporaneous- 
_ ly with his reading of the Latin text. We therefore recommend 
that some prescribed reading in English should precede the | 
detailed study of Latin selections dealing with particular — 
events or periods in order to give the pupil an intelligent un- 
derstanding of the background and to enable him to fit what 
he reads in Latin into its place in the general scheme. 

Equipped with a preliminary knowledge of the setting of — 
the story secured from reading in English and from class-— 
room discussions pupils should then be expected to under- | 
stand the thought content of what is being read in Latin 








METHODS 205 


from day to day and to understand its bearing upon the 
larger whole of which it forms a part. The following specific 
suggestions to this end were made by the teachers answering 
the general questionnaire: 

An occasional review of the story from the beginning to 
the point reached by the class. 

Frequent summaries of chapters in which important events 
are rounded out (e.g., the mutiny in Caesar’s army dur- 
ing his campaign against Ariovistus). 

Maps, plans or outlines upon the board which are modified 
as the reading proceeds. 

The use of such devices as the following for vivifying the 
story: 

(a) Class discussions 

(b) Debates 

(c) Dramatization 

(d) Pictures and slides 

(ec) Reading such books as Whitehead’s “The Standard 
Bearer,” Holmes’ “Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul.” 

The collateral reading in English recommended as an in- 
tegral part of the work of each year should have, however, 
a broader purpose than simply to assist in the interpretation 
of the Latin text read. It should be directed to developing 
familiarity with such phases of Roman life, history and 
thought as are adapted to the maturity, interest and capacity 
of pupils and as grow naturally out of the Latin reading. We 
believe that it will be better for the pupil to acquire a real 
understanding of a very few of these topics than to gain a 
superficial acquaintance with a larger number. 

While this assigned outside reading in English will natural- 
ly be the most important method by which pupils will follow 
up a given topic, the following additional methods are sug- 
gested by the teachers answering the general questionnaire : 
Use of pictures, slides and similar illustrative material. 
Incidental allusion to these topics by the teacher in con- 

nection with the reading of the Latin text. 


206 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Oral and written reports by pupils on assigned topics. 

Voluntary reading of Roman historical novels. 

Brief informal talks given from time to time by the teacher. 

Voluntary reading of stories from classical literature (e.g., 

Plutarch’s Lives). 

Exhibits prepared by pupils (topics worked out in the form 

of charts or models). 

Note-books prepared by pupils. 

We recommend that in the treatment of all the topics 
marked emphasis should be placed upon comparison with pres- 
ent-day events and situations, such as survivals of Roman 
governmental policies, laws and customs in the world of 
today, Rome’s contribution to the solution of present social 
and political problems, and allusions to Roman customs as 
these appear in the English reading of the pupils or as they 
are reflected in English words. 


B. VOCABULARY 


The methods to be employed in the teaching of Latin vo- 
cabulary should be designed, as already suggested, to develop 
correct habits of independent study, to contribute both to the 
mastery of Latin vocabulary and to the attainment of the 
ultimate objectives which teachers consider valid for their 
pupus and which depend for their attainment upon a knowl- 
edge of Latin words, to involve the use of association and ap- 
perception, to enlist the interest of the pupil, and to encour- 
age application of the facts and processes acquired in the 
study of Latin to the activities of life outside the Latin class. 

We recommend that new words should first be met in an en- 
lightening context, oral, written or printed, and that pupils 
through daily class-room practice in comprehension at sight 
should be trained to get at the meaning of most new words 
through intelligent use of the context with the assistance of 
such light as is often thrown upon the meaning by related 
Latin words and by English derivatives. 'The judgment of 


METHODS 207 


the teachers answering the general questionnaire is entirely 
in harmony with these recommendations. In answer to the 
question as to which of seven methods listed** they believed 
should be most commonly employed by the pupil in getting 
the meaning of new Latin words the teachers indicated an 


overwhelming preference for the following: 


Associating a new Latin word with English derivatives or 
with related Latin words before the word is met ina 
sentence. 

Determining the meaning of a new Latin word from con- 
text, association with English derivatives or association 
with related Latin words as the new word is met in a sen- 
tence. 


If pupils are actually to develop a strong habit of attack- 
ing new words in this way in the independent preparation of 
their lessons, it is clear that a more persistent effort must be 
made to give the necessary guidance through daily practice 
in comprehension or translation at sight. The Grise and Swan 
studies? show that over 50% of the pupils habitually turn 
at once to their vocabularies when they meet a new word, the 
majority of them without even stopping to consider what is 
the exact vocabulary form to be sought, while only a third of 
the pupils indicate that they are in the habit of using the 
methods recommended above in finding the meaning of a new 
word. These studies also show that whereas 857% of the pu- 
pils rank technical questions in syntax as among the most 
frequently asked in the Latin recitation, only 29% are equally 
familiar with class-room questions involving the determination 
of the meaning of a new word by methods such as those recom- 
mended above. 

Further, if pupils are to develop ability to solve indepen- 
dently and upon their own initiative the meaning of new 


28 See Part II, Chapter III, Section 2. 
29See Part II, Chapter III, Section 6, 


“ 


208 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


words, not only should class-room practice illustrate exactly 
what the pupils are expected to do outside of class but the 
text-book which confronts the pupil when he is preparing 
his lessons should be so constructed as to give the utmost help 
possible for the use of these methods. Particularly is this true 
during the first year’s study of Latin when permanent habits 
of study are being formed. 

We do not suggest that the methods here recommended 
can or should be used exclusively. There will be a proportion 
of new words whose meaning either cannot be determined by 
these methods or can be determined only by too large expendi- 
ture of time. The meaning of such words should be given out- 
right by the teacher or be secured by the pupil through the 
vocabulary. The number of such words, however, should be 
kept down to the smallest number consistent with the ends 
in view. Furthermore, a good many new words may be learned 
with profit directly through the oral work recommended. The 
oral method is, however, a method of teaching rather than of 
learning and cannot be used by the pupil in acquiring new 
vocabulary by himself. i 

We believe that the methods recommended for learning 
Latin vocabulary also provide a better basis for developing 
desirable general habits of thinking than is established either 
by purely memoriter study or by the almost universal prac- 
tice of consulting the vocabulary for the meaning of every 
unfamiliar word. Pupils who follow in daily preparation of 
their lesson the methods here recommended receive thereby 
very definite elementary training in the use of scientific meth- 
od, which has for its main characteristic the provisional adop- 
tion of a series of assumptions which are to be accepted or 
rejected on the basis of tests applied. The assumptions, in 
this case, are the different possible meanings for the new word 
suggested by its context and its similarity to known Latin or 
English words; the test applied to each assumption in turn 


METHODS 209 


is its capacity to “make sense.” When pupils have developed 
facility in solving problems of this kind in Latin, their atten- 
tion should be specifically called by means of appropriate 
illustrations to the identity of the method used with that em- 
ployed in all scientific research. 

The teachers answering the general questionnaire are in 
entire agreement with this view. Eighty-nine per cent of these 
teachers expressed the opinion that vocabulary should be 
so taught as to contribute to the attainment of the disciplin- 
ary objectives, and when asked to state which of the seven 
methods listed they believed would contribute most effectively 
to the attainment of the disciplinary objectives, indicated by 
almost unanimous vote their preference for the same two 
methods recommended above for the learning of Latin vocab- 
ulary, though in reverse order of importance, namely: 

Determining the meaning of a new Latin word from con- 

text with English derivatives or association with related 
Latin words as the new word is met in a sentence. 
Associating the new Latin word with English derivatives 


or with related Latin words before the word is met in a 
sentence. | 


Inasmuch as the spread of habits formed in the study of 
Latin is dependent in part upon the interest pupils feel in 
the various types of activity, it is of importance to note that 
the Grise and Swan studies show that problems of this type 
appeal to a larger proportion of pupils than do problems of 
a purely formal type. 

In our recommendations regarding the vocabulary to be 
mastered thoroughly it has been indicated that from four to 
five hundred new words met in the first year and approximate- 
ly five hundred words in each successive year should be selected 
for permanent retention. The words selected for permanent 
retention should be mastered with almost perfect thorough- 
ness and exactness. To secure this result repeated drill will 


210 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


be necessary; but we recommend that wherever practicable 
this drill be functional and associative rather than merely 
mechanical in character. That the teachers answering the 
general questionnaire are in agreement with this view is in- 
dicated by the relative emphasis they would attach to various 
possible methods of fixing the vocabulary already learned. 
These methods arranged in accordance with the preference 


—-~ 


indicated by teachers are: 


Repeated association with English derivatives. 

Drill on groups of related Latin words. 

Frequent occurrence in reading material. 

Vocabulary drills by means of such devices as perception 
cards, “‘spell-downs,” and the like. 


The majority of teachers attach comparatively small im- 
portance to formal reviews of lists of Latin or English words 
and there is unanimous agreement that the common practice 
of repeatedly looking up words in the vocabulary is not to be 
encouraged. The value of the writing of Latin as an aid in 
fixing vocabulary is generally recognized. We also recommend 
the oral use of Latin for this purpose. 

Whatever methods are adopted for fixing the vocabulary 
to be permanently retained, we believe that a degree of attain- 
ment should be achieved which will adequately justify the 
claim commonly made that Latin is a peculiarly suitable ve- 
hicle for the development of accuracy and thoroughness. 
Teachers should, therefore, point out the value of such ac- 
curacy and thoroughness not only for the study of Latin but 
for the study of other school subjects and for all situations 
in every-day life in which an accurate grasp of details is nec- 
essary for success. 


ENGLISH DERIVATIVES 


We believe that if the method here recommended for the 
learning of Latin vocabulary is actually used by pupils in 


METHODS 211 


heir daily study, it will lead naturally and surely to the 
omplementary activity of employing the known Latin in in- 
erpreting unfamiliar English derivatives. Almost all the 
eachers answering the-general questionnaire express the opin- 
on that pupils should be trained to associate new Latin words 
s they are learned with already familiar English derivatives 
nd believe that pupils should be trained to use Latin words 
earned to explain the meaning of less familiar English de- 
‘ivatives. 

The methods recommended for the acquisition-and fixing of 
ocabulary are in our judgment precisely those which will pro- 
ide conditions most favorable for attaining those ultimate 
bjectives which depend upon the application of Latin vocab- 
lary to English and to other languages. The results of the 
ests in English vocabulary given in the national testing pro- 
sramme show that Latin pupils make markedly greater 
zrowth in their knowledge of Latin-derived words than non- 
uatin pupils make, but the information furnished by the 
eachers of the pupils taking the tests shows that in the ma- 
jority of schools participating considerable attention was 
siven to the teaching of derivatives in the classes concerned. 
The Philadelphia controlled experiment shows that in the case 
of those classes in which the work was so organized that no as- 
sistance in the teaching of English derivatives was furnished 
either by teacher or text-book, the carry-over was very slight, 
but that in the case of those classes in which specific efforts 
were made through both the teacher and the text-book to teach 
English derivatives, a marked growth was attained. The ques- 
tions relating to transfer have been discussed in an earlier sec- 
tion of this chapter. Their application to the problem of 
teaching English derivatives is obvious. In the case of the 
majority of young pupils a knowledge of the meaning of 
Latin words cannot be counted on to produce automatically 
the power to understand their English derivatives. To recog- 


212 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 






nize the many opportunities for applying a knowledge of 
Latin words to the interpretation of English derivatives calls’ 
for a larger capacity than is involved in the acquisition of the 
original knowledge. No teacher expects pupils to acquire this 
original knowledge except as a result of repeated effort. Still 
less can pupils be expected to develop ready ability to apply 
the facts learned to fields outside of Latin without an equally | 
steady training based upon material carefully selected and 
upon methods definitely designed to increase the pupil’s ca- 
pacity not simply to make a particular application when a 
problem is specifically assigned but to recognize independent- 
ly the various opportunities for application afforded in the 
pupil’s own reading. Not until this last mentioned capacity 
has been developed may we be reasonably sure that the habit 
of making such applications will continue to function in the 
later activities of life after the study of Latin has ceased. 
The teachers answering the general questionnaire were 
asked to indicate the relative emphasis they would attach to 
several methods suggested for developing in the pupil the 
habit of associating Latin words with their English deriva- 
tives. The methods suggested by the teachers arranged in the 
order of preference are: 
Encouraging pupils to discover independently new deriva- 
tives from Latin words already learned. 
Kncouraging pupils to discover in their English reading 
derivatives discussed in class. 
Asking pupils to discover independently new derivatives 
from Latin words specially assigned. 
Encouraging pupils to use in sentences derivatives dis- 
cussed in class. 
Definite assignment of English derivatives for explanation 
on the basis of their etymology. 
In connection with the last mentioned method we. recom- 
mend that the means employed should be such as, without de- 


METHODS 213 


stroying interest, will encourage the same accuracy and thor- 
oughness as are required in other parts of the Latin work. The 
teachers answering the general questionnaire indicated that 
they would attach most importance in class-room practice to 
requiring a complete analysis of English derivatives showing 
the force of prefix, root and suffix, and that they regarded as 
next in importance requiring an explanation of the meaning 
of the English derivatives on the basis of its derivation, but 
without complete etymological analysis. Teachers attach lit- 
tle importance to class-room practice in the association of the 
English word with the Latin original without requiring an 
explanation of the meaning of either. 

We do not, however, recommend that etymological analysis 
be required in the case of all words studied. Word-study, while 
interesting and even fascinating to many boys and girls, may 
be made so mechanical and technical as to lose its vitality and 


to discourage initiative on the part of the pupils. 


SPELLING OF ENGLISH DERIVATIVES 


The results of the Coxe study, based on the Columbus- 
Rochester controlled experiment in spelling, show that only 
as the result of definite training in making associations be- 
tween the spelling of Latin and English words may really sat- 
isfying results be secured. Furthermore, the same study shows 
both that the best positive results are secured when these 
associations are finally expressed in the form of definite prin- 
ciples or rules and that a certain slight but appreciable inter- 
ference with the spelling of non-Latin words which the study 
of Latin produces may be eliminated by the use of definite 
principles of association.” | 


30 For a list of the principles or rules used in this controlled experiment 
see Part II, Appendix B. 


214 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES IN ENGLISH 


With reference to acquiring satisfactory ability to explain 
the meanings of Latin words, phrases, abbreviations or quo- 
tations occurring in an English setting, we recommend that 
teachers who regard this objective as valid for their pupils 
should arrange to include in the work of the first two years 
the vocabulary necessary for the interpretation of such ma- 
terial and that a definite study of the most frequently occur- 
ring words and phrases should be included in the regular work 
of the class, preferably in their English setting.** 


TECHNICAL TERMS 


There is no better intermediate step in training pupils to 
use in the later activities of life facts and processes acquired 
in the study of Latin than training them to use their Latin 
vocabulary in the solution of linguistic problems met in their 
other school subjects. We recommend that pupils be provided 
with definite lists of technical and semi-technical terms found 
in the text-books of other subjects** and that they be given 
sufficient initial training in making the necessary associations 
to insure acquaintance with the opportunities afforded and 
to provide an incentive for making further discoveries and 
applications on their own initiative. Eighty-five per cent of 
the teachers filling out the general questionnaire advise that 
definite efforts be made to secure the codperation of the teach- 
ers of other school subjects in this matter. Every effort should 
be made to secure such codperation. If a pupil becomes aware 
that he will actually be held responsible in the class work of 
other subjects for what he has learned in Latin, any tendency 
to keep his Latin in a closed compartment will be checked. 

31 For a list of the most frequently occurring Latin words and phrases 
see Part II, Appendix C. 


$2 For a list of technical and semi-technical terms found in the text-books 
of various high-school subjects see Part II, Appendix A. 


; 
. 


METHODS | 215 


LATIN AND THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES 


The results of the national testing programme and of the 
controlled experiment in correlating Latin and French show, 
as already stated, that teachers who consider increased ability 
to master the vocabulary of French and other Romance lan- 
guages a valid objective for their pupils will need to give 

icir pupils some explicit training in making and holding the 
connection between Latin and other languages. We offer the 
following suggestions in this connection: 

That the historical relation between Latin and French 
and other Romance languages be pointed out with illustra- 
tions of the close relation of words in these languages to 
their Latin originals.** 

That during the first year of Latin before many of the 
pupils are presumably studying a second foreign language 
an attitude of anticipated familiarity with the new lan- 
guage and a favorable condition for later application be 
developed by the occasional but systematic introduction 
of appropriate anticipatory questions, such as: “If you 
should study French next year and should meet the word 
terre, what do you think it would mean?” 

That in the case of pupils studying Latin and French 
contemporaneously definite efforts should be made to train 
them to apply Latin vocabulary to French and vice versa. 


TESTING ATTAINMENT 


In so far as the various application objectives are regard- 
ed by teachers as valid for their pupils and are consequently 
made a definite part of class-room instruction and outside 
preparation, it is strongly recommended that pupils should 
be held responsible for attaining these objectives as well as 
the immediate objectives, and that tests and examinations 
should regularly include questions on the more important 
aims of the subject. If such tests are limited exclusively to 


33 For a list of French words related by derivation to commonly used 
Latin words see Part II, Appendix D. 


216 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


only two or three phases of instruction, pupils will inevitably 
come to regard any other class-room activities as purely in- 
cidental and will limit their serious efforts to those phases of 
the work for which they expect to find themselves held strictly 
responsible. For example, the great majority of teachers be- 
lieve that pupils should be taught to work out the meanings of 
new words through context, English derivatives and related 
Latin words, but the Pound-Helle study discloses no instance 
in which pupils are asked to solve the meaning of a new word 
by any of these methods and only 2% of first-year papers 
and 6% of second-year papers contain questions on the ety- 
mology of Latin words or on Latin word-formation. Again, 
the teaching of English derivatives is regarded as a valid ob- 
jective by 98% of the teachers answering the general ques- 
tionnaire—a larger proportion than considered as a valid ob- 
jective for the course as a whole either the ability to read 
new Latin after the study of the language in school or col- 
lege had ceased or progressive development of power to read 
Latin—and 70% of the pupils indicated that questions on 
‘nglish derivatives were very commonly asked in the Latin 
recitations. The Pound-Helle study, however, shows that only 
42% of first-year papers and 27% of second-year papers con- 
tained questions on English derivatives. Only one paper con- 
tained a question testing the pupil’s ability to use his knowl- 
edge of Latin in interpreting the technical and semi-technical 
terms of Latin origin found in other school subjects. Only 
6% of first-year papers and 3% of second-year papers con- 
tained questions testing the pupil’s ability to understand 
Latin words, phrases, abbreviations and quotations occur- 
ring in English. As previously stated, no paper of any year 
contained a question involving the application of Latin to 
English spelling or a question testing the capacity of the 
pupil to use his knowledge of Latin in the mastery of other 
foreign languages. We therefore recommend that the more 


METHODS Q17 


important ultimate objectives as well as the immediate ob- 
jectives be regularly represented by appropriate questions 


in all tests and examinations. 


HABIT OF SEEING RELATIONS 


We believe that the application objectives of the teaching 
of Latin provide a most convenient and serviceable medium for 
development of the general habit of discovering identical ele- 
ments in different situations and experiences and of making 
true generalizations, which should be one of the most valuable 
products of the study of Latin. Unless this general habit is 
developed as a conscious aim, the specific transfers, while 
worth while in themselves, will usually be limited in their 
spread to the specific fields within which they were originally 
developed. Furthermore, the development of such a general 
habit gives unity, coherence and an ultimate goal to the va- 
rious types of application discussed above. 


C. SYNTAX 


‘The methods to be employed in the teaching of Latin syntax 
should be such as to develop correct habits of independent 
study, to contribute both to the mastery of Latin syntax and 
to the attainment of the ultimate objectives which teachers 
consider valid for their pupils, to involve the use of associa- 
tion and apperception, to enlist the interest of the pupil, and 
to encourage the application of the facts and processes ac- 
quired in the study of Latin to the activities of life outside 
the Latin class. 

We recommend that all syntactical constructions should 
first be met by the pupils in an appropriate context, prefer- 
ably that supplied by a continuous narrative, and that pupils 
should be trained to discover first the grammatical idea and 
next the way in which the idea is expressed. In the earliest 
stages most of the principles to be learned in Latin will already 


218 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


have been met in English. As each principle is taken up in 


Latin the pupil should be led to recognize the identity of the 
grammatical idea with that already met in English and to_ 


observe thé ways in which this idea is expressed in the two 


languages. The attention of the pupil should be particularly 


directed to any method of expressing a given idea in English 


aa 


which is identical with or similar to the method used in Latin.** 


In some cases it may prove desirable to develop a given gram- 
matical principle through the use of Latin or English sen- 
tences illustrating the principle before the idea is encountered 


in actual reading, but we believe that the poor grasp of syn-— 


tactical principles disclosed by the results of the national 
testing programme is due in large measure to the lack of im- 
mediate incentives for the acquisition of each new principle 
and that such incentives will be furnished far better by a con- 
sciousness of actual need for such knowledge arising from the 


pupil’s experiences in actual reading. 


The teachers answering the general questionnaire agree 


that syntactical principles in Latin should be presented in 
this way and in relation to similar principles in English. When 
asked to indicate which of six methods listed*® they believed 


$4 ‘““A skilful use of the analogies in the mother language helps towards 
the grasp of the Latin idiom. We want to lead up to the accusative and 
infinitive which occurs in the next piece in the reading book. Instead of 
starting with the rule ‘After verbs declarandi et sentiendi the subject 
stands in the accusative case and the verb in the infinitive mood, the predi- 
cate agrees with the subject in the accusative,’ we refer back to two sen- 
tences which have already occurred in the reading book. ‘Videmus stellas 
in caelo esse.’ ‘Credo hominem probum esse.’ But, while we cannot say 
‘I hear the man to be honest,’ still less, ‘I hear the man to have been 
ejected, or ‘to be about to die,’ this is the regular way of stating a fact 
after a verb of knowing, thinking or stating in Latin.” From “The Teach- 
ing of Classics in Secondary Schools in Germany,” in a Special Report 
on Educational Subjects, published for the Board of Education by 
Wyman and Sons, London (1910), volume 20, p. 134. 

85See Part II, Section III, Chapter 2. 


METHODS 919 


should be most commonly employed in teaching a new syn- 
tactical principle, they expressed a preference for the three 
following methods in the order given: 

Developing the grammatical principle through written or 
printed Latin sentences illustrating the principle. 

Developing the grammatical principle through English 
sentences embodying the same principle. 

Meeting each construction first in the Latin reading ma- 
terial and then developing from the context the gram- 
matical principle involved. 

We believe the early introduction of a greater abundance 
of easy connected reading will permit greater emphasis upon 
the third method listed above and correspondingly less upon 
the first method than the reading material now commonly used 
permits. These methods need not be used exclusively. Some 
grammatical principles, for example, are best developed 
through oral practice; but this method of teaching syntax 
is subject to the same limitations as were noted in connection 
with the teaching of vocabulary through oral practice. 

We recommend in particular that the learning of a formal 
rule of syntax be postponed until the pupil has encountered 
the principle involved in his actual reading and has already in- 
formally identified the grammatical idea and observed the way 
in which it is expressed in Latin. A “rule” then becomes a for- 
mulation of his own experience that a certain idea is to be ex- 
pressed in a certain way. 

We further recommend that emphasis be placed upon de- 
velopment of the pupil’s ability to solve new syntactical prob- 
lenis independently on the basis of his previous experience 
with similar principles in Latin or in English, and that prob- 
lems which call for his individual initiative should be definite- 
ly assigned. 

In the use of this method the utmost care should be taken 


220 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


to avoid the error of allowing pupils to make hasty generali- 
zations on the basis of insufficient data. If, however, the teacher 
sees to it that the pupil has had repeated experience with a 
given idea in actual reading before he attempts to make a 
generalization and to formulate a “rule,” the danger of this 
error will be greatly reduced. If the inference is to be made 
from illustrative sentences supphed by the text-book or the 
teacher, either enough illustrations should be given to correct 
any tendency “to jump at conclusions,” or it should be made 
clear to the pupil that the illustrations given may be assumed 
to be typical. We realize that the latter method is inferential 
in form only, but believe that, even so, a valuable training in 
general method can be gained thereby if the process is care- 
fully safeguarded. | 

It should also be noted that if pupils are to be expected 
to use the training thus given in activities outside the Latin 
class, specific illustrations of the identity of the method used 
in Latin with that employed in other intellectual activities 
should be given from time to time. 

Ninety-three per cent of teachers answering the general 
questionnaire believe that Latin syntax should be so taught 
as to contribute to the attainment of the disciplinary objec- 
tives. When asked to indicate which of the six methods listed 
they believe contributed most effectively to the attainment of 
the disciplinary objectives, a large majority indicated that 
the same three methods given above were precisely those which 
would be most effective for this end. Less than 10% of the 
teachers believe that the memorization of rules of syntax in 
advance of actual reading experience with the principle is a 
valuable practice. 

It will be observed that much emphasis is placed in these 
recommendations upon the desirability of making an explicit 
distinction between the underlying syntactical idea expressed 


METHODS 221 


in a given word, phrase or clause, and the method of express- 
ing that idea. A clear recognition on the part of the pupil of 
the distinction between these two is important for several 
reasons. It permits of a discriminating attack by teacher and 
pupil upon each of the two problems of syntax by methods ap- 
propriate to each. The grammatical idea is the underlying 
logical relationship found in a given word, phrase or clause 
and the approach to the problem may therefore be made on a 
logical basis. The method of expressing an idea is, on the 
other hand, a matter of accepted usage in a given language. 
It will frequently be sufficient for the pupil to understand the 
idea expressed by.a given word, phrase or clause (what it tells 
about the rest of the sentence) without at the time coming 
to final conclusions as to how that idea is to be expressed. 
Pupils may and should encounter a given idea several times 
in their reading before they are ready to formulate a state- 
ment defining the usage. 


GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE STRUCTURE 


Furthermore in learning to make this distinction between 
the idea and the expression of the idea pupils are acquiring 
the fundamental-basis for developing a knowledge of the prin- 
ciples of general language structure. Syntactical ideas are 
universal and when once recognized as such present a tangible 
demonstration of the ultimate solidarity of the human race. 
The extent to which pupils gain this conception through Latin 
depends upon the extent to which in the teaching of Latin syn- 
tax stress is laid upon the logical and therefore universal 
character of all grammatical ideas. On the other hand there 
are similarities between Latin and English in the methods of 
expressing ideas because of the historical relation between 
Latin and English. Consequently every identification of Latin 
and English grammatical principles and every analogous iden- 


222 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


tification with the same principles occurring in other lan- 
guages furnish a fresh object lesson in the historical develop- 
ment of the Indo-European peoples. 


FIXING SYNTACTICAL PRINCIPLES 


We recommend that the chief method to be employed for 
fixing grammatical principles after they have been ascertained 
should be the use of oral and written Latin. Oral Latin should 
be used to supplement and in part to replace the writing of 
Latin in the earlier stages of the work. This oral work should 
be based on the text read and may consist of turning sen- 
tences in the singular into sentences in the plural and vice 
versa, of making changes in the person, tense or voice, or of 
answering in Latin questions asked in Latin. Through the 
use of oral work errors can be immediately corrected or pre- 
vented and a sort of grammatical conscience created. It is 
better to prevent the occurrence of errors than to have to 
eradicate them after their occurrence. The use of questions 
and answers in Latin may well be continued throughout the 
course as a method of fixing syntactical principles. Questions 
for this purpose should be so constructed as to involve in reply 
the use of the syntactical principles and forms which it is de- 
sired to fix.°° We do not, however, recommend that oral 


36 “After a section has been gone through carefully, all books are turned 
over and the teacher puts questions based on the text to the class. Each 
answer must be a complete sentence in itself, and the word which answers 
the question must come first in the answer. This exercise trains to careful 
observation in the reading of the text and plasticity of expression, In 
the first lessons this reproduction of question and answer will perhaps 
be used after each sentence in the reader; the question words used— 
quis? quid? cur? quando? quot?—are written on the blackboard and are 
easily picked up. This is, of course, practically an exercise in retrover- 
sion, and might easily develop into a mere parrot repetition if the teacher 
did not vary his question skilfully. As soon as facility is acquired, a 
longer section, say a whole story, is taken, and the following may serve 
as a sample: Cum adolescentulus Romanus in castris amicis clipewm 





af ——— ss SS se 


METHODS 223 


work should be carried so far as to displace the writing 
of Latin. “Writing maketh an exact man.” The teachers fill- 
ing out the general questionnaire express the opinion that the 
writing of Latin is the most effective method for fixing gram- 
matical principles. We recommend that exercises to be trans- 
lated from English into Latin should be sharply limited in the 
range of vocabulary and syntactical principles involved, that 


pulerum et splendidum monstraret, Marius: ‘Cur laudas,’ inquit, ‘clipewm 
tuum? strenuorum Romanorum fiducia non in sinistra sed in dextra est. 

“This is the seventeenth piece in Wulff’s Reader, and would be taken 
approximately in the eighth week of learning Latin. 

Master. Quid adolescentulus ‘monstravit? 
Boy. Clipewm splendidum et pulerum monstravit, 
Cui monstravit? 
Amicis suis monstravit. 
Ubi monstravit? 
In castris Romanis monstravit. 
Quid Marius id spectans exclamavit? 
Ne laudaveris clipewm tuum, 
Quid adolescentulo Romano laudandum est? 
Gladius adolescentulo Romano laudandus est. 

“During the first year the teacher will be content if the pupil in his 
answer simply rings the changes on the words used by the teacher in his 
questions; later on he expects the boy to cast his answer in quite a dif- 
ferent mould and show some power of self-expression. The boys, too, be- 
come keen at showing how well they can do it. In the top classes, at the 
beginning of a translation lesson, one or two of the pupils are called upon 
to give a short résumé or précis of the previous lesson in Latin, and this 
will be followed by a few questions in Latin by the teacher, intended to 
supplement the narrative or to bring out some point that was not clear. 
The boys in the top classes gave these résumés without any fumbling in 
quite passable Latin; any mistake was at once corrected by their vigilant 
classmates. The whole showed a sense of mastery and the joy that mas- 
tery gives; ‘possunt quia posse videntur” But such results would not be 
possible unless in the lower classes boys had been habituated to pick up 
Latin by ear and express themselves in Latin simply and shortly. Simi- 
larly boys in the third year were called upen to read a piece of oratio 
obliqua into direct speech.” From “The Teaching of Classics in Secondary 
Schools in Germany,” in a Special Report on Educational Subjects print- 
ed for the Board of Education by Wyman and Sons, London (1910), 
volume 20, pp. 130-132. 


BeOS w EOS 


224 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


théy should be easy, repetitious, free from special difficulties 
and far more interesting than at present. We believe that dur- 
ing the first two years of the course the greater part of the 
work in thé writing of Latin should be done during the class 
period under the direct supervision of the teacher, and that 
a discussion of the syntactical principles involved and some 
oral practice with sentences illustrating the principles should 
precede the writing. 

The teachers answering the general questionnaire, when 
asked to indicate which of seven methods listed*’ they believed 
should be commonly employed in teaching pupils to write 
Latin, expressed their preference for the three following 
methods in the order given: 

Requiring analysis of each thought-group of the SaaS 

sentence before translation into Latin. 

Assigning English sentences to be translated into Latin 

in class after previously assigning for outside study the 
vocabulary and syntax involved. 


Assigning English sentences to be translated into Latin 
outside the class. 


We believe that at present too much emphasis is placed on 
questions in formal syntax in connection with the Latin text 
being read and that the common practice of asking such 
questions after the translation of the passage has been given 
is especially open to objection. This form of drill on syntac- 
tical principles distracts the attention of the pupil from the 
thought of the passage he is reading, the passage which it is 
at that time his main business to comprehend and interpret. 
Questions of syntax should be asked after interpretation or 
translation only for the purpose of clearing up difficulties or 
correcting errors remaining after the passage has been read. 

We believe that no improvement proposed in this report is 
more imperative than elimination of the excessive attention 


87 See Part II, Chapter ITI, Section 2. 


METHODS 225 


now commonly given to formal syntactical analysis especially 
when this analysis follows the translation. If the thought of 
the passage has been correctly expressed in the translation, 
a syntactical analysis of the passage is a wholly gratuitous 
exercise and an unjustifiable interruption of the story. If, on 
the other hand, the thought of the passage has been incorrect- 
ly interpreted or translated as a result of the pupil’s failure 
to understand syntactical relations, it is the function of the 
teacher to have anticipated and removed the difficulty by pre- 
liminary questions or by encouraging the pupil in advance to 
ask questions in regard to his own difficulties. 

A majority of teachers answering the general questionnaire 
believe that the practice of asking questions on syntax is ef- 
fective in fixing grammatical principles and pupils filling out 
the question blank on content and method indicate that this 
is one of the most frequently occurring types of class-room 
question. We have already expressed the belief that the em- 
phasis now placed upon this exercise is due in large measure 
to a general belief in its efficacy in training pupils in formal 
logical analysis, the value of which at this early stage is 
too doubtful to warrant any training in formal syntactical 
analysis not justified on other grounds. 

We therefore recommend that all questions in syntax asked 
in connection with the comprehension or translation of Latin 
passages shall be functional in character, designed to clarify 
in advance ideas about which confusion might be anticipated 
and that as far as possible these questions be based upon 
indications, already met in the passage being read, as to what 
ideas are presumably going to follow. 

It is generally agreed that the best results of class-room 
instruction will be secured when the pupil’s interest is most 
keenly aroused. The Grise and Swan studies show that the 
present emphasis upon formal syntax accounts in some meas- 
ure for the dislike which many pupils: feel for Latin, since 


226 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


the discrepancy there shown between the proportion of pu- 
pils who state that various types of questions occur very fre- 
quently in class recitation and the proportion of pupils who 
like the various types of questions is greater in the case of 
questions on formal syntax than in any other type of question. 


LATIN SYNTAX AND CERTAIN ULTIMATE OBJECTIVES 


We believe that the illustrative use of English grammar in 
the teaching of Latin grammar provides, as in the analogous 
treatment of vocabulary, favorable opportunities for attain- 
ing those ultimate objectives which depend upon the applica- 
tion of facts and processes learned in the study of Latin to 
fields other than Latin and for developing an elementary 
knowledge of general language structure. Eighty-nine per 
cent of the teachers filling out the general questionnaire ex- 
press the opinion that association with English grammar 
should furnish one basis for developing Latin syntactical 
principles and 87% of the teachers express the opinion that 
pupils should be trained to apply to English the grammatical 
principles learned in Latin. 

We therefore recommend, first, that a definite and strictly 
limited amount of specific material involving the application 
of Latin grammar to English be included in the regular class- 
room work and in the outside preparation of lessons, and, 
second, that this material be of two general types: (1) ma- 
terial illustrating those grammatical principles which are 
common to Latin and English** and (2) problems involving 
the application of grammatical principles learned in Latin 
to the correction of common grammatical errors in English. 

We further recommend that Latin teachers should make 
every possible effort to secure the codperation of teachers of 


88 For a list of grammatical principles common to Latin and English see 
Part II, Appendix E, 


METHODS 227 


English in correlating the work in Latin and English gram- 
mar. Such correlation provides an excellent means of prevent- 
ing the pupil from regarding the study of Latin as an iso- 
lated activity. As a further means of promoting such corre- 
lation we suggest that Latin teachers take the initiative in 
promoting the adoption and use of a uniform grammatical 
terminology in all the language classes of their own schools.” 
The great majority of the teachers filling out the general 
questionnaire believe such action to be desirable. 

We recommend that Latin pupils who are studying other 
foreign languages be given brief and simple summaries of the 
principal syntactical elements common to the languages in- 
volved ; that sufficient training be given these pupils in making 
the necessary identifications in actual practice to enable them 
to continue the practice independently; and that brief but 
systematic references to particular opportunities for making 
such connections should be made throughout the Latin course. 
Seventy-seven per cent of the teachers advise training pupils 


39 “The languages studied in our schools are the descendants of the same 
language, the ‘parent speech’ once spoken by the ancestors of almost all 
the scholars; and, while the words of that parent speech have largely 
changed their forms and differ in the languages spoken today, the ways 
in which they are used have changed relatively little. The relations ex- 
pressed, for instance, by the terms subject, predicate, direct object, in- 
direct object, purpose, result, cause, have not changed at all; it is only 
our ways of speaking about these relations that differ. And if the stu- 
dent, having learned the conception and the name of any of these in any 
language, found the same conception set forth by the same name in any 
other language that he might study, a sense of law and order would suc- 
ceed the present sense of arbitrariness and in many minds a feeling of 
interest would succeed the feeling of indifference or distaste. 

“Further, the adoption of a system of identical nomenclature for iden- 
tical phenomena in all the languages of our family which the student may 
take up, with its natural accompaniment of differing nomenclature at the 
points where the phenomena differ, would have the effect of making these 
differences stand out more sharply in his mind.” From the Report of the 
Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature of the National Educa- 
tion Association, (1913), pp. vi, vii. 


228 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


to apply consciously grammatical principles learned in Latin 
to the Romance languages and to German. 

We recommend that teachers who regard as valid the ulti- 
mate objectives which depend for their attainment upon a 
knowledge of Latin syntax should hold their pupils. responsi- 
ble for endeavoring to attain these objectives and should reg- 
ularly include in the tests and examinations given their pupils 
questions on these phases of Latin study. The Pound-Helle 
study*’ shows that no paper contained a question designed to 
test the pupil’s ability to work out a new syntactical problem 
independently, that no paper contained a question designed 
to test the pupil’s ability to apply his knowledge of Latin syn- 
tax to a solution of grammatical problems in English or a 
modern foreign language, and that no paper contained a 
question testing the pupil’s knowledge of the principles of gen- 
eral language structure. 

The contacts which Latin grammar affords with the other 
linguistic experiences of the pupils are so numerous, close 
and obvious as to make this phase of the study of Latin the 
natural agency for initial development of the general habit of 
identifying similar elements in different situations which we 
believe is a very important objective of the study of Latin. 


D. FORMS 


The methods to be employed in the teaching of Latin forms 
should be such as to develop in the pupil correct habits of in- 
dependent study, to contribute both to the mastery of Latin 
forms and to the attainment of the ultimate objectives which 
teachers consider valid for their pupils, to involve the use of 
association and apperception, to enlist the interest of the 
pupils, and to encourage the application of the facts and 
processes acquired in the study of Latin to the activities of 
life outside the Latin class. 


40See Part II, Chapter IV, Section 13. 


METHODS 229 


We recommend that the learning of inflectional forms be 
closely associated with practice in the use of those forms.** 
As soon as the most important functions of the case forms, 
singular and plural, have been recognized in context a sufli- 
cient number of times to warrant confidence that gram- 
matical ideas rather than formal English equivalents have be- 
come associated with the endings, paradigms should be drawn 
up and memorized. An analogous treatment of the verb is 
recommended. 

The emphasis which should be attached to the immediately 
usable functional instances of inflection in the initial stages of 
the work should be maintained throughout the course. The 
problem confronting the pupil in reading Latin according to 
the methods recommended involves the prompt recognition of 
the several possibilities of a given form and the contempor- 
aneous recognition of all the grammatical ideas which up to 
that time the pupil has actually learned to associate with that 
form. It is more important in our judgment that a pupil 
should be able, for example, to recognize promptly the four 
possibilities of form and idea contained in a first declensional 
word ending in -ae than to be able formally to decline the word. 
We therefore urge that initial drill on forms should be func- 
tional in character and that this drill should be continued 
until the significance of an individual form and the associated 


41“From the outset an accurate knowledge of the inflectional forms used 
should be insisted upon. But these forms should not be learned in parrot 
fashion quite apart from their uses. The formal paradigms should fol- 
low, not precede, the actual use of the forms in translation. A large num- 
ber of easy oral and, later, written exercises bearing upon and illuminat- 
ing the story or fable which is read should fix these forms and the neces- 
sary syntax firmly in mind. Words, forms, and principles of syntax should 
be learned because needed and when needed in the reading of the text.” 
W. E. Foster in “The Preliminary Statement of the Chairman of the 
Committee on Ancient Languages of the Commission of the National 
Education Association for the Reorganization of Secondary Education,” 
United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin No, 41 (1913), p. 37. 


230 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


ideas suggest themselves promptly upon the appearance of 
that form. A premature memorization of paradigms sets up 
habits and associations entirely inconsistent with the pro- 
cess which consists of taking in the thought of a Latin sen- 
tence as it develops.*” If, however, pupils first acquire through 
repeated experience the habit of associating the appropriate 
grammatical idea or ideas with each of the case-forms as they 
are met, the learning of paradigms should then be regarded 
as a convenient and most valuable method of consolidating 
and organizing the knowledge thus gained. 

Some forms, such as the vocative and imperative, will be 
most effectively learned through oral work. The oral method, 
however, is one which the pupils can be expected to use for 
themselves only in the review of forms already learned. 

The similarities of inflectional endings in the various de- 
clensions and conjugations should be emphasized in the initial 
stages of the work and their differences taken up later. For 
example, pupils should be able to recognize the accusative 
singular of a masculine or feminine noun ir respective of the 
particular declension to which it may belong and to recog- 
nize the present and imperfect tenses of all regular conjuga- 
tions before the four conjugations have been taken up sepa- 
rately. 

We recommend that when the organization of declensions 
and conjugations is taken up, attention should be given to the 
general inflectional systems underlying them. This is recom- 
mended not only because of the assistance which such a sys- 


42“RKach fundamental fact of language should be presented in the nor- 
mal way in which it functions in the language. Let us take for an illustra- 
tion declension and conjugation. The old-fashioned way of memorizing a 
tense person after person and a declension case after case in a parrot- 
like fashion is pedagogically wrong, because it creates wrong associa- 
tions of ideas and does not correspond to the way a verb or a noun ever 
occurs in a sentence.” E. B. de Sauzé in “Problems of First-Year Latin,” 
The Classical Journal, XVI (March, 1921), pp. 341-342. 


METHODS 231 


tematic organization will afford in combining and retaining 
a knowledge of the forms but also because of the value which 
such an emphasis has in giving the pupils a conception of the 
genius of the Romans for order and system as embodied in 
their language. 

We believe that no single acquirement will contribute more 
to the pupil’s progressive development of power to read 
Latin than a thorough functional knowledge of inflectional 
forms and we recommend the adoption of every possible 
means to secure a thorough mastery of the inflectional forms 
assigned to the work of each semester. We especially urge 
the use of oral and written Latin as a very valuable means 
to this end. The teachers filling out the general questionnaire 
indicate their belief that one of the chief values of the writing 
of Latin is the aid it gives in the mastery of inflectional 
forms. 

We urge, however, that the practice of asking formal ques- 
tions on inflections while pupils are attempting to comprehend 
or to translate the thought of a Latin passage should be re- 
duced to the very lowest minimum. Sixty-eight per cent of the 
pupils filling out the question blank on content and method 
indicate that one of the things they were most frequently 
asked to do during the class recitation was to inflect a noun 
or a verb. Ninety-seven per cent state that these questions 
are most commonly asked in connection with the translation 
of the passage upon which the questions were based, and 96% 
state that these questions were commonly asked after or dur- 
ing the translation. If questions on inflectional forms are 
asked after translation, it should be only for the purpose 
of correcting errors, and the experienced teacher may elim- 
inate the need for most of such questions by asking be- 
fore translation appropriate functional questions which will 
make clearer to the pupils the intimate relation of forms and 
syntax to the expression and comprehension of thought. 


232 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Teachers and authors of text-books have recently come to 
recognize the opportunities afforded by the relationship of 
English to Latin for associating new Latin words with fa- 
miliar English derivatives. The opportunities afforded for 
the use of analogous associations in the learning of forms have 
been recognized in only a small number of text-books. We 
recommend that the resources of English already familiar to 
the pupils should be more fully used for the purpose of teach- 
ing Latin forms, for the complementary purpose of helping 
in the interpretation of English derivatives, and for the still 
larger purpose of enabling pupils to appreciate the close 
historical relationship between English and Latin. The re- 
sources of English available for making such associations 
should be systematically prepared for use in connection with 
the teaching of Latin inflections. Many inflectional forms are 
preserved in commonly occurring Anglicised Latin words and 
phrases.** Very many nouns of the third declension have fa- 
miliar English derivatives which will provide the pupil with 
the Latin stems.** Four-fifths of the verbs of the first conjuga- 
tion important enough to be set for the pupil’s mastery have 
English derivatives from their last principal parts which in- 
dicate the conjugation, and most of the important verbs in 
the other conjugations have English derivatives which assist 
in the learning of their last principal parts.*® Comparative 
endings of adjectives are preserved in many English words 
and practically all the Latin adjectives whose comparisons 
are irregular have English derivations throwing light upon 
the Latin form of each degree.*® We also recommend that pu- 


43 For example, alumnus, alumni, formula, formulae, memorandum, 
memoranda, indices, arbor vitae, Anno Domini, in memoriam, vim, via, ab- 
origine, bona fide, omnibus, rebus, recipe. 

44 For example, miles (milit-ary), custos (custod-y), ifer (itiner-ary). 

45 For example, voco (vocat-ion), mitto (miss-ion), video (vis-ion). 

46 For example, bonus (boon), melior (amelior-ate), optimus (optim-ist). 





METHODS 233 


pils should be expected on their own initiative to solve prob- 
lems in Latin forms by associating them with cognate or de- 
rived forms in English.** Teachers filling out the general 
questionnaire indicate their belief that the learning of new 
forms by either or both of these methods contributes more 
effectively to the attainment of the disciplinary objectives 
than does the memorization of complete paradigms. , 

Among the most important objectives in the teaching of 
Latin already discussed is the development of the generalized 
habit of recognizing identical elements in different situations. 
It is clear that the value of this habit depends upon the extent 
to which it can be made to operate in fields in which the identi- 
ty of the common elements is not immediately obvious. The 
relation existing between Latin and English is most easily 
seen in the field of syntax and the establishment of associations 
in this field constitutes the first natural step in developing the 
general habit of seeing identical elements in different situa- 
tions. In the case of vocabulary the relationship is in gen- 
eral less easily obvious, being obscured by differences in pro- 
nunciation and in spelling. The opportunity of finding things 
below the surface which this relationship affords for develop- 
ing the general habit of identifying common elements in dif- 
ferent situations is therefore correspondingly greater than 
in the case of syntax. 


Section 6. The Direct Method 


The oral work often suggested in the foregoing pages 
should not be confused with the so-called Direct Method of 
teaching. This method as applied to the teaching of Latin is 
the same as that now applied so extensively to the teaching of 
the modern languages and has approximately the same aims. 
Its characteristic features are: 


47 For a list of English derivatives which will assist in the learning of 
Latin declensions, conjugations and comparisons see Part II, Appendix F. 


234 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


1. The employment of Latin from the beginning as the cus- 
tomary, though not exclusive, language of the class 
room. 

2. The acquisition of vocabulary, forms and syntax almost 
entirely by induction in oral drill based upon the pupil’s 
activity, pictures, models, and the like. 

3. The subordination of reading to speaking throughout 
and, when the reading stage is reached, the testing of 
knowledge or comprehension, not by translation but by 
questions in Latin concerning the content of the passage 
read. 

4. The omission of translation entirely until the pupils are 
well advanced in their power to read and understand 
Latin as Latin, and the use of translation as an exercise 
in the artistic use of English. 

The Direct Method is not new, so far as its aims and chief 
characteristics are concerned, for ever since Latin began to 
spread into the provinces of the Roman Empire there were 
schools to teach provincial children to speak Latin. This was 
also true of the period of the Revival of Learning and later. 
The gradual disuse of Latin as a means of communication be- 
tween educated men is responsible for the change in methods 
to those in existence today. But there have always been en- 
thusiastic spirits who have believed in and trained their pupils 
in the oral use of Latin. Their efforts have usually been for- 
mulated into systems bearing their names. The present Direct 
Method movement differs from these attempts in that it is the 
work of a school rather than of an individual and has de- 
veloped a large series of text-books as well as many collections 
of easy reading material and plays, many of which are in- 
cluded in the lists cited above. 

It is undoubtedly true that remarkable results have often 
been obtained by experienced teachers working with the Direct 
Method under favorable conditions. Nevertheless we do not 
recommend that this method be adopted for general use be- 
cause 


METHODS | 235 


1. It requires teachers trained specifically in this method, 
with adequate experience to enable them to avoid the 
dangers inherent in this method. Such training is not 
now available to any extent in this country. 

2. Inasmuch as the essential feature of this method is indi- 
vidual drill, it can be profitably used only where classes 
are comparatively small. It is accordingly not applicable 
to large systems or where there are large classes. 

3. Owing to the slow rate of progress in the earlier stages, 
the pupils in such classes cannot be transferred to other 
classes in the same school unless all the Latin teachers 
use the Direct Method, nor to other schools in the same 
system unless the system follows this method. Under 
present conditions such homogeneity is unattainable. 

4. In the hands of inexperienced or ignorant teachers the 

attempted use of this method has been found to result in 
great waste of time with extremely poor results, a glib 
and showy response on the part of pupils and an alert 
interest in the class room often veiling a serious lack of 
exact knowledge and substantial progress. 

. The limitation of the aims of the Direct Method renders 

the attainment of many desirable objectives largely if 
not wholly impossible. 


Or 


While, therefore, not recommending the employment of 
this method throughout, we regard it as of high value in the 
hands of skilled teachers in the earlier stages of instruction, 
particularly in the junior high school period. 


CHAPTER VI 
» 
CoMPARATIVE Rercorps oF CLASSICAL AND 
Non-Cuassicat PuPits 


Section 1. Introduction 


Tus far we have been concerned largely with presenting and 
interpreting the ascertained facts, favorable and unfavorable, 
regarding the present attainments of Latin pupils as related 
to the character and effect of the Latin teaching and also with 
proposals for improving the teaching. In various places in 
Chapter III, however, definite experimental evidence was pro- 
duced which shows that the Latin pupils tested, when com- 
pared with the non-Latin pupils of the same initial ability tak- 
ing the same tests, usually show better progress in certain 
phases of certain other secondary school studies. This raises 
the larger question as to whether or not this result occurs in 
all the subjects of the secondary school course. But the time 
and means at our command and the many complexities of the 
problem have made it impossible for us to devise and apply 
specific scientific tests and measurements to all the subjects. 

We are able, however, to present a large body of depend- 
able evidence as to the comparative records of classical and 
non-classical pupils in the leading subjects of the secondary 
school course which are offered for college admission. This 
evidence has been obtained from the records of the College 
Entrance Examination Board and from other sources. It ex- 
tends and confirms the conclusions drawn from the results of 
the tests and measurements presented in Chapter III. 

Over a ten-year period, including all candidates for college 
entrance from 1914 to 1923 inclusive, Latin leads all subjects 





COMPARATIVE RECORDS 237 


except Greek and French in the records made in the examina- 
tions of the College Entrance Examination Board. Greek easi- 
ly ranks first and Latin, with a much larger number of can- 
didates examined, is behind French by only a fraction of one 
per cent. Next highest in rank come physics, chemistry and 
mathematics, close together, and lowest in rank come Ger- 
man, English and history. 

Moreover, an analysis of the records made by 10,000 Col- 
lege Board candidates in nine leading college preparatory 
studies show that the Latin students not only do better than 
the non-Latin students in all subjects outside of Latin and 
Greek, but also that with a single exception, which is prob- 
ably easily explainable, the records in all these non-classical 
subjects go higher as the amount of Latin studied is greater. 
The margin of superiority of the Latin group of students as 
a whole is about 13%. Several methods of attempting to ascer- 
tain the difference in initial ability between Latin and non- 
Latin college preparatory pupils also seem to show that only 
about one-tenth of the 13% superiority of the Latin students 
at the end of the secondary course is to be attributed to this 
factor, and that nine-tenths of the superiority is due to 
something gained from the study of Latin itself. In other 
_ words, so far as measured by standing in the College Board 
| examinations, a Latin student seems to gain during the sec- 
_ ondary course more than 10% over the non-Latin student of 
the same initial ability. 


Section 2. Certain College Board Records over a 
Ten-Year Period 


Table I at the end of this chapter gives a summary of the 
College Board examination records for the ten years 1914- 
1923 in the nine subjects in which, aside from Greek, there was 
the largest number of candidates during this period. In the 
first part of the table the subjects are arranged according to 


238 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


the percentage of all candidates in this decade who obtained 
a standing of 60% or over. The second part of the table gives 
the same information in another form, combining the nine 
subjects into two groups, Latin and Greek in one and the 
other seven in the other. The results recorded in this table 
clearly indicate that whatever faults exist in the teaching of 
Latin and Greek, they exist to a markedly less degree in the 
teaching of Latin and Greek than in the teaching of other 
subjects. ; 


Section 3. An Analysis of the College Board Records 
of 10,000 Students 


Table II at the end of this chapter shows the average marks 
received in subjects other than the classical languages by 
10,000 College Board candidates, arranged in groups accord- 
ing to the amount of Latin studied in the secondary school. 
This number includes all the “old plan” final candidates for 
a group of ten colleges for the years 1922, 1921 and 1920, 
and enough from 1919, taken alphabetically, to complete the 
10,000. 

It will be noticed in this table that, with a single exception 
affecting one year in one subject, the ratings in each subject 
_go higher as the amount of Latin studied is greater. This ex- 
ception is due to the fact that the three-year Latin group 
makes a slightly better record in science than the four-year 
Latin group makes. We believe this is accounted for by the 
probable presence among the 10,000 candidates of a consider- 
able number of students from some of the leading schools of 
the country who dropped Latin at the end of the third year 
and took science in its place in preparation for one of the 
leading eastern universities. This group may have been large 
enough and its scholarship high enough above the general 
average of the 10,000 to account for the one slight exception 
to the general trend of the table. 


COMPARATIVE RECORDS 239 


Table ILI gives the facts of Table II in a form which shows 
by percentages the superiority in each subject of each of the 
three Latin groups (four-year, three-year, two-year) and 
the average superiority of the three Latin groups over the 
non-Latin group. It will be seen, for example, that the four- 
year Latin group shows a superiority in English of 21.21% 
over the non-Latin group, the three-year Latin group a su- 
periority in English of 13.60%, the two-year Latin group a 
superiority in English of 4.52%, and so on throughout the 
list. The average superiority of the three Latin groups in all 
subjects is 18.18%. 


Section 4. Extent to Which the Superiority of These Latin 
Students is Due to the Study of Latin 


The figures in Table II and Table III at once bring up the 
fundamental question as to how much of this superiority of 
Latin over non-Latin students is due to difference in initial 
ability and how much, if any, to something derived from the 
study of Latin. Several studies have been made of the differ- 
ence in initial ability between Latin and non-Latin first-year 
secondary pupils.’ These studies tend to show that while the 
difference is considerable, it is not so great as has been gen- 
erally supposed. So far as we have been able to learn, however, 
all these studies have included non-college preparatory non- 
Latin pupils, which makes the results inconclusive in this par- 
ticular connection. Two studies,” based on a rather small 
number of instances, seem to indicate that the difference in 
general intelligence between Latin and non-Latin college 


1See E. I. Newcomb, “A Comparison of Latin and Non-Latin Groups in 
High School,” Teachers College Record, XXIII (November, 1922), pp. 
412-422, 

2T. J. Kirby, “Latin as a Preparation for French,” School and Society 
XVIII (November 10, 1923), pp. 563-569, and L, E. Cole, “Latin as a 
Preparation for College French and Spanish,” School and Society, XTX 
(May 24, 1924) pp. 618-622. 


240 ‘THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


freshmen at entrance is less than the difference in general in- 
telligence between Latin and non-Latin first-year pupils in 
secondary schools. Further studies of this particular question 
on a moré extensive basis are needed before general conclu- 
sions can be drawn with certainty. 

After consultation with several authorities in the field of 
educational measurement, the following methods of obtaining 
additional evidence were therefore adopted: 

1. From 20 secondary schools of different types and sizes 
in different parts of the country the final marks in first-year 
English and mathematics were obtained—these being the two 
subjects common to the first year—of all pupils who after- 
ward entered college from these schools in the years 1919- 
1922. The total number of such students was slightly in ex- 
cess of 2,100. Many of them, probably the majority, were in- 
cluded in the 10,000 College Board candidates of Table II. 
These 2,100 students were arranged in Latin and non-Latin 
groups. The marks for each group were averaged, with the 
following result: 


SUPERIORITY OF LATIN OVER NON-LATIN COLLEGE PREPARATORY 
PUPILS IN ENGLISH AND MATHEMATICS COMBINED 


Measured at the end of the fourth year of the secondary course by 


the College Board examination, as indicated by Table II 14.17% 
Measured at the end of the first year of the secondary course by 
random sampling, as described above 2.35% 


Gain in three years apparently due to the study of Latin for part 
or all of the time 11.82% 


In other words, judged on this basis, 16.6%, or one-sixth 
of the superiority of the Latin over the non-Latin group in 
English and mathematics at the end of the secondary course, 
is due to difference in ability as shown at the end of the first 
year, and 83.4%, or five-sixths, is due to something which 
these pupils obtained from the study of Latin. If the difference 
in ability could have been tested at the beginning of the first 
year instead of at the end of it, when the members of the 


COMPARATIVE RECORDS 241 


Latin group already had one year of Latin, there seems to 
be reason to believe that the first of these two percentages 
would be smaller and the second larger. This same point 
should be kept in mind in connection with the method next to 
be described. 

2. The subjects common to the first year in the New York 
Regents’ examinations are biology and algebra. Those com- 
mon to the fourth year are English and history. A study was 
made of the marks received by 75 “‘pairs” of fourth-year stu- 
dents in the English and history examinations of June, 1923. 
The two students in each pair came from the same school and 
received the same marks in biology and algebra (averaged) 
in the examinations of June, 1920. One student in each pair 
studied Latin from two to four years in the secondary course 
and the other studied no Latin. 

It was found that in 5 pairs there was no appreciable dif- 
ference between the two students in their standing in the 
fourth-year English and history examinations (averaged), 
that in 10 pairs the non-Latin student and in 60 pairs the 
Latin student had the better record. The average superiority 
of the Latin members of the entire 75 pairs was 10.44%. 

It will be seen that in this case the difference in initial abili- 
ty, as existing at the end of the first year, has already sup- 
posedly been eliminated by the pairing method. This differ- 
ence may be roughly estimated as 1.60%, the difference be- 
tween 10.44% and the 12.04% superiority of the Latin group 
in English and history combined as shown in Table II. This 
may be stated in the following form: 


SUPERIORITY OF LATIN OVER NON-LATIN COLLEGE PREPARATORY 
PUPILS IN ENGLISH AND HISTORY COMBINED 


Measured at the end of the fourth year of the secondary course by 
the College Board examinations, as indicated by Table III 12.04% 


Estimated at the end of the first year, in the manner just described 1.60% 





Gain in three years apparently due to the study of Latin for part 
or all of the time 10.44% 


242 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Judged on this basis, 18.37% of the superiority of the Latin 
over the non-Latin group in English and history at the end of 
the secondary course appears to be due to difference in abili- 
ty as shown at the end of the first year, and 86.7% appears 
to be due to something derived from the study of Latin. 

3. An effort was next made to compare Latin and non- 
Latin college preparatory groups in the first year of the sec- 
ondary school by means of intelligence quotients. It was soon 
discovered that very few data of this kind are yet available. 
This is apparently for two reasons: that in most schools there 
is no clear differentiation in the first year between the two 
groups mentioned or between them and the rest of the class, 
and that intelligence tests have been given in very few schools 
long enough for the school records to show the results of the 
first-year tests of students who have already entered college. 
In other words, such students cannot be traced back as was 
done in the random sampling described in 1. above. 

The records of about 500 students were obtained, however, 
from different types of schools. It was found that the median 
intelligence quotient of the non-Latin college preparatory 
group at the beginning of the first year was almost identical 
with that of the Latin group. The small number of students 
involved probably makes the study of comparatively little 
value by itself, but it does tend to bear out the conclusions 
drawn from 1. and 2. Its results may be stated thus: 


SUPERIORITY OF LATIN OVER NON-LATIN COLLEGE PREPARATORY 
PUPILS FOR ALL COLLEGE PREPARATORY SUBJECTS COMBINED 


Measured at the end of the fourth year of the secondary course by . 
the College Board examinations, as indicated by Table II 13.18% 


Measured at the beginning of the first year by intelligence quo- 
tients 0.00 


Gain in four years apparently due to the study of Latin for all or 

part of the time 13.18% 
Judged on this basis, 100%, or the entire superiority of 

this Latin group in all subjects at the end of the fourth year 


COMPARATIVE RECORDS 243 


of the secondary course, seems to be due to the study of Latin. 
The average of this total superiority with the corresponding 
percentages under 1. and 2. is 90%. That is, assuming the 
validity of the three methods described above, something con- 
nected with the study of Latin is itself responsible for 90% 
of the superiority of the various Latin groups indicated in 
Table ITI. 

The conclusions reached in the foregoing discussion of the 
methods of eliminating the difference in initial ability be- 
tween the Latin and non-Latin college preparatory groups 
are summarized in Tables IV-VI at the end of this chapter. 

The facts given in this section are not put forward as con- 
stituting technical proof or final demonstration of the effect 
of the study of Latin. But we believe that, taken as a whole, 
these converging indications, combined with other evidence 
contained in this Report, do go far to show that, aside from 
its direct and cultural values, Latin does something for those 
who study it which gives them in other fields of mental effort 
a margin of advantage that may fairly be called substantial. 
In fact, it looks as if the “formal disciplinarians” of other 
days, even when wrong in their premises, were right in many 
of their conclusions as to the disciplinary values of Latin 
(and Greek) and as to the extent to which these values may 
help in the study of other subjects. 

These disciplinary values are discussed fully earlier in this 
Report. We believe that such values account for the greater 
part of the facts brought out in this section, and that under 
proper conditions they are not only capable of transfer to 
other academic activities, but will manifest themselves in the 
professions, in business life and in other callings generally. 

It may be that one of the most important of these indirect 
transferable values—possibly the most important aside from 
the ability to think more accurately in abstract situations 
and then to express one’s thoughts clearly—is that which has 
been described by Professor Stephen S. Colvin as “the mental 


24:4 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


challenge that comes to those of ability and earnest purpose 
in the attempt to master a subject worthy of their mettle 
and through this challenge and the meeting of it the develop- 
ment of farther ability and further purpose to master other 
difficulties.” 


TABLE I 


Results of College Board (Old Plan) Examinations of all candidates for ten suc- 
cessive years, 1914-1923, in the nine leading subjects 








Subject Number of Books Percentage of Books Rated 
60 to 100 
Greek 7,141 70.2 
French 58,197 61.4 
Latin 89,243 61.0 
Physics 19,244 60.2 
Chemistry 12,615 58.1 
Mathematics 127,153 57.5 
German 21,545 53.8 
English 65,110 48.2 
History 47,930 43.2 
Total 448,178 56.0 
Same data, with subjects arranged in two groups 
Subjects Number of Books Percentage of Books Rated 
60 to 100 
Greek and Latin 96,384 61.7 
French, Physics, Chemistry 
Mathematics, German 351,794 54.4 
English, History 
Total 448,178 56.0 
Average margin of superiority for Greek and Latin pupils is 7.3 points=13.4% 
(7.3+54.4) 


Note: Spanish is not included in this table because of the small number taking 
the college entrance examinations in this subject in the earlier part of the decade 
1914-1923. 

TABLE II 


Average marks received in subjects other than Latin by 10,000 College Board 
candidates, arranged in groups according to the amount of Latin which they 
studied in the secondary school. (See page 238). 


PUPILS WITH ENGLISH HISTORY MATHEMATICS SCIENCE MODERN ALL 
LANGUAGES SUBJECTS 


4 years Latin 62.76 58.01 64.25 63.08 65.83 63.29 
3 years Latin 58.82 57.26 63.57 64.12 63.55 61.95 
2 years Latin 54.12 53.49 62.04 59.99 57.88 58.45 
No Latin 51.78 50.69 54.92 57.64 54.60 54.10 


COMPARATIVE RECORDS 245 


TABLE III 


The facts of Table II arranged to show the percentage of superiority of each of 
the three Latin groups—and the average of the three—over the non-Latin group. 





PUPILS WITH ENGLISH HISTORY MATHEMATICS SCIENCE MODERN ALL 
LANGUAGES SUBJECTS 

4 years Latin 21.21 14.44 16.99 9.44 20.57 16.99 

3 years Latin 13.60 12.96 15.75 11.24 16.39 14.51 

2 years Latin 4.52 5.52 12.96 4.08 6.01 8.04 

Average of above 13.11 10.97 15.28 8.25 14.32 13.18 


Norte: The percentages in this table were obtained as follows. According to Table 
II the four-year Latin group, for example, obtained a rating of 62.76 in English 
and the non-Latin group a rating of 51.78. 62.76 + 51.78 =1.2121, a percentage of 
superiority for the former of 21.21. 


TABLE IV 
A 


Percentage of superiority of Latin over non-Latin college preparatory groups at 
the end of the secondary course, as indicated by Table ITI. 


In English-Mathematics 14.17 

In English-History 12.04 

In all college preparatory subjects 13.18 

Average 13.13 
B 


Percentage of superiority of Latin over non-Latin college preparatory groups in 
the first year of the secondary course, as indicated by the following results. 


Random selection (English-Mathematics) 2.35 

Regents records (English-History) . 1.60 

Intelligence quotient (All subjects) 0.00 

Average 1.32 
C 


Percentage of superiority of Latin over non-Latin college preparatory groups at 
the end of the secondary course apparently due to the study of Latin, as in- 
dicated by subtracting B from A, thus endeavoring to eliminate differences in 
initial ability. 


In English-Mathematics 11.82 
In English-History 10.44 
In all college preparatory subjects 13.18 


Average 11.81 


246 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


TABLE V 


Percentage of total superiority of Latin group apparently due to the study of 
Latin and not to difference in initial ability, as indicated by C+-A, Table IV. 





In English-Mathematics 83.40 

In English-History 86.72 

In all college preparatory subjects 100.00 

Average ~ 90.00 
TABLE VI 


The figures of Table III multiplied by 90% (as indicated in Table V) to show the 
percentage of superiority of each of the three Latin groups—and the average of 
the three—over the non-Latin group after the difference in initial ability has 
been eliminated by the methods indicated in Table IV, leaving as the only factor 
the effect of the study of Latin. 


PUPILS WITH ENGLISH HISTORY MATHEMATICS SCIENCE MODERN ALL 
LANGUAGES SUBJECTS 

4 years Latin 19.09 12.99 15.29 8.49 18.51 . 15.29 

3 years Latin 12.24 11.66 14.18 10.11 14.75 13.06 

2 years Latin 4.07 4,99 11.36 3.67 5.41 7.24 


Average of above 11.80 9.87 13.71 7.43 12.88 11.86 


CHAPTER VII 
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND COMMENTS 
Section 1. The Situation in Latin 


We have now considered in detail the question of secondary 
school Latin and the positive and comparative results ob- 
tained under present conditions, and have also made definite 
proposals for improvement. The faults in our Latin teaching 
and in the present constitution of the course have been plainly 
exposed and examined. The objectives, content and method 
which we believe should set the standard for organizing and 
conducting the course have been fully studied and clearly de- 
fined. A detailed comparison of present conditions with the 
standard proposed has led to the recommendations which have 
been made. 

The primary intent of the recommendations is that Latin 
should be learned in order to be read and understood and that 
there should also be continuous and concurrent development 
of the larger enduring intellectual and historical values which 
are derivable from Latin. As the pupil’s initial knowledge in- 
creases it should be collected and combined from time to time 
so that it may be held together and held more surely. Deduc- 
tive inference and analytical practice, necessary as they are 
in their place, should come after each successive advance has 
been made by the pupil in learning the language by using it 
and should be employed not as the main but as the supple- 
mentary method of learning Latin in order to fix and test 
what has already been learned. The language should first be 
used and acquired to some extent and its structure should 


1—In Chapters III, IV and V. 


248 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


then be gradually discovered with the help of that portion of 
the language already learned and used, instead of having the 
structure learned first and then used to discover the language. 

We believe there is much good, mediocre and poor teaching 
of Latin. The existing faults, which have been searched out 
and exhibited without reserve or extenuation, are serious and 
widely diffused. They call for strong and prompt remedies, 
and Latin teachers ask that the remedies be found and ap- 
pled. Yet the faults in teaching are not the sole element to be 
considered. A large part of the difficulty is due to the way in 
which the Latin course is now constituted. These two factors, 
the faults in teaching and the imperfect arrangement of the 
course, account for the difficulties in the situation. They re- 
act injuriously on each other and thus combine to aggravate 
the result. The two remedies needed, as may be inferred from 
the previous chapters, are a revision of the course on the basis 
proposed and a large supply of adequately trained teachers. 
Revision of the course, while necessary, will be insufficient 
without the vitalizing influence of finer teaching and of enough 
well trained teachers to diffuse this influence widely. Here as 
elsewhere the mechanical element is the lesser factor and the 
human element is the controlling factor which must be de- 
pended on to make the mechanism operate beneficially. 

The reconstitution of the course must be effected within the 
close time limits allowed in the secondary schools. The amount 
of material now included in the course is too large to be well 
taught within the time available and is not as suitably adapt- 
ed as it should be and might be to the successive stages of 
progress of the pupils. These two factors produce the pres- 
ent congestion and imperfect distribution of material and 
therefore continually operate to hinder the attainment of sat- 
isfactory results. A reduction in the amount of material will 
relieve the congestion and make it practicable to teach the 
lessened amount better. A modification and better distribu- 


GENERAL CONCLUSIONS Q49 


tion of the material will make it practicable to realize the 
aims of the course in much fuller measure. In this way the 
faults which inhere in the present constitution of the course 
can be eradicated. 

The other and more important factor is the character of 
the teaching. We do not believe that improvement is attain- 
able here on a large scale until really adequate provision is 
made for the training of Latin teachers. It is not made at the 
present time. Facilities for this purpose, though somewhat 
more numerous recently, are utterly insufficient to meet the 
general need for training prospective teachers and for im- 
proving the training of our present body of teachers as well. 
There is plenty of evidence to show that the demand for Latin 
teachers, especially for better trained Latin teachers, is in- 
creasing rapidly and that the supply is so inadequate as to 
warrant deep anxiety.” In many cases teachers with practic- 
ally no training in Latin have had to be taken in order to do 
something to provide for the increasing number of Latin 
pupils. Existing centers for the training needed should there- 
fore be enlarged at once and new centers should be established 
as soon as possible. In view of this situation there is little 
reason for surprise or for blaming Latin teachers. Taken as 
a whole they are doing fully as well as could be expected of 
any other set of teachers working under like conditions. 

There is another side to the picture, which it is most grati- 
fying to contemplate. Notwithstanding the imperfect results 
secured, whether due to the present constitution of the Latin 
course or to poor teaching or to any other cause, these re- 
sults, though much below what can be and are attained under 
more favorable conditions, are better than in most other sec- 
ondary school studies. In the records of the College Entrance 
Examination Board for the whole country for the ten consecu- 


2“Results in Latin: First Two Years,” University of the State of New 
York Bulletin, No. 773, January 1, 1923, p. 22. 


250 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


tive years 1914-1923, Latin stands near the head of the list. 
practically tied with French for second place and surpassed 
by Greek, which ranks first. It has the highest average record 
among the four subjects which have the largest enrolment 
of pupils. We recognize that Latin pupils are of a somewhat 
higher initial ability than other pupils and that part of the 
result is due to this cause. There is positive evidence, how- 
ever, that this initial superiority is less than has been gen- 
erally supposed, that a large part of the result is presumably 
due to something derived from the study of Latin, that this 
part grows larger the longer Latin is studied, and that in so 
far as Latin and non-Latin pupils of admittedly equal initial 
ability have been tested experimentally in subjects outside 
of Latin, the Latin pupils usually make the better record.® 
The very large enrolment of Latin pupils is both encour- 
aging and discouraging. The recent rapid increase, following 
a sagging* in Latin and also in English (and therefore in 
general enrolment) during the World War, is highly encour- 
aging. Latin pupils are crowding, as never before, into our 
school courses. The number of pupils in Latin is now a little 
greater than the combined number of pupils enrolled in any 
or all other foreign languages. Never before in our history 


3 See Chapters III and VI. 

4 We have the figures for this sagging in the State of New York during 
the three years definitely affected by the World War (1917-18, 1918-19, 
1919-20) and also for the enrolment in the years immediately preced- 
ing and following. The Latin enrolment had risen in 1916-17 to 85,770. In 
1917-18 it fell to 75,160, in 1918-19 to 69,370 and in 1919-20 it rose a little 
to 71,907. In 1920-21 it increased to 82,076 and in 1921-22 to 93,303. 
There was little variation in Greek. In spite of the sagging, Latin re- 
tained throughout the war its position as the leading foreign language. 
I’rench and Spanish gained heavily, though not for identical reasons, and 
German was reduced to a very small remnant. The situation in New 
York is in general accord with what is known of the situation throughout 
the country. See “Results in Latin: First Two Years,” University of the 
State of New York Bulletin, No. 773, January 1, 1923, Table 2, p. 6. 


GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 251 


1as there been so good an opportunity for wide diffusion of 
the educational benefits of Latin. It should also be noted that 
Latin is the one most generally studied foreign language 
which may be offered for admission to college and that Latin 
and French, so closely related to each other, when taken to- 
gether have four-fifths of the present total enrolment in all 
foreign languages.” 

The less encouraging aspect of this huge Latin enrolment 
is that the supply of teachers, whether adequately or inade- 
quately trained, is very insufficient and that small provision 
is being made for training Latin teachers. It is not too much 
to say that the future educational usefulness of Latin is large- 
ly dependent on securing this urgently needed supply. The 
present enrolment of Latin pupils will almost certainly show 
further increase soon, not from compulsion—since Latin is 
elective in most schools, so much so that it may usually be 
dropped at the end of any year at the pleasure of the pupil— 
but because there is an unforced growing demand for the 
study. Each added increase will bring new demands for more 
teachers and, above all, for more well trained teachers. The 
Latin pupils are coming in great and increasing numbers. Are 
we to have the teachers to teach them? And are we to have the 
well trained teachers needed? The opportunity is great and 
the need is imperative. 

How is this indispensable supply of trained teachers to be 
secured? Here the intelligent codperation of school and uni- 
versity authorities will be necessary. We believe it will be 
forthcoming. But this will not produce the desired result un- 
less large expenditures are wisely made to put into effective 
operation the agencies which must organize and direct the 
training. A few of these agencies now exist. They should be 
strengthened and many new agencies should be promptly 


established. 
5 See Table I in Appendix A, p. 269. 


252 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Yet there is something we can do of ourselves. As early a: 
the last two years of the school course and throughout the 
college course teachers and professors should be on the 
watch for bright students with presumable aptitudes fot 
teaching, who should be encouraged to look forward to the 
classical career and should be guided in their studies towarc 
this end. We may thus discover in advance many promising 
teachers. Under existing conditions it is hardly in our powet 
to do more. 

The Latin and also the Greek enrolment in the colleges has 
recently increased. In the case of Greek part of the increase 
is due to the larger number of students in Greek beginners’ 


courses given in college. 


Section 2. Present State of Greek in the Schools 


Time and means were not available for extending the in- 
vestigation to Greek except in so far as needed for compar- 
ison with Latin in enrolment and in results at the end of the 
school course. The enrolment in Greek is so small as to cause 
deep concern, but the results in Greek are demonstrably and 
notably better than in any other subject® in the academic sec- 
ondary school course. How far this is due to ability of the 
pupils, to the quality of the teaching or to the nature of the 
subject, or to any combination of these factors, has not yet 
been determined by scientific measurement. On the basis of the 
experimentation in Latin it is reasonable to suppose that all 
three factors are involved and that while superior ability of 
the pupils will be one factor, the effect of the teaching and 
the nature of the study will also be found to contribute sub- 
stantially to the total result. This view is strengthened by 
the fact that there is little complaint about the teaching of 
Greek and also by the fact that the school study of Greek or- 
dinarily begins a year after the school study of Latin begins 


6 See Chapter VI. 


GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 253 


und is therefore in position to profit by whatever advantage 
nay accrue to the pupil from having studied one classical 
anguage for a year before beginning the other. The two clas- 
ical languages are so very intimately related as to make it 
most certain that initial progress in one will help in begin- 
ling the other. The road to both is the same. 

Those who know both Latin and Greek are practically, and 
yerhaps without exception, unanimous in their judgment that 
vhile Greek is a much finer instrument of thought and ex- 
pression than Latin, or indeed than any other foreign lan- 
ruage, it is not to be expected that the number of Greek stu- 
lents will be nearly so great as the number of Latin students. 
But this does not and should not mean that the study of 
xreck is not to be strongly encouraged and fully provided for 
ill who are fit to take it. If it is not a valuable school study, it 
hhould not be provided at all. If it is a valuable school study, 
is practically all scholars emphatically declare it is, then it 
should be made easily accessible to all who are qualified to take 
L. , 

In our public high schools, where fully nine-tenths of our 
econdary school pupils are to be found, Greek is ordinarily 
not provided at all.’ Even when provided it is usually left to 


‘The attitude of most of our forty-eight State Superintendents of Edu- 
‘ation toward Greek is neutral (twenty-four) or unfavorable (sixteen). 
nly eight are positively favorable. See end of Chapter II. 

Vernon M. Riegel, State Superintendent of Public Instruction for 
Jhio, in a circular of August 11, 1921, announcing that mathematics was 
10 longer to be a requirement in any secondary school of Ohio, after 
stating that “all the mathematics for those who desire it that there was 
yefore” is still provided, closes with these interesting words: “The ex- 
‘eptions that occur need not concern us as much as the great body of 
young people who stumble along and drop out because they possess no 
uptitude for a subject such as mathematics or such as Latin, which, like 
ugebra, was once on the required list. Greek, too, once knew the day 
when it was rated indispensable, but many have forgotten that it was 
ever taught in high schools.” 


254 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


take its forlorn chance in a scramble with easier studies ot} 
less intellectual power and of quick commercial use. In suct 
circumstances the pupil not only is not encouraged to take 
Greek even when he is fit for it, but is practically preventec 
from taking it by being allured to easier so-called “useful’ 
studies, which are offered him as presumably “just as good’ 
as Greek. Cases are also known where administrative ob- 
stacles are placed in the way of forming Greek classes fo1 
capable pupils who want it. A good instance of the generally 
inequitable nature of the situation is found in the case of 
Spanish, a language for which satisfactory provision shoulc 
be and is made. It is a much easier language than Greek anc 
is being taught almost entirely for commercial use rather thar 
for its educational worth. It is not only provided in thirty 
times as many public high schools as teach Greek,* but is 
commonly accepted as equivalent to Greek for admission tc 
college. This is an effective way to prevent students from of- 
fering Greek for college entrance. That many who want Greek 
cannot get it in school is also indicated by the recent marked 
increase in beginners’ Greek courses in college,—work which 
properly belongs in school and not in college and which re- 
duces the power of the colleges to go ahead with college work 
in Greek for all students taking Greek in college. 

No study of non-utilitarian type, however excellent it may 
be, is given a fair chance in such circumstances. A like situa- 
tion, though not so acute, appears also in the case of some 
other studies, as in the sciences. Immature pupils are left ta 
judge matters wherein they have had no experience which 
would enable them to judge correctly. This bears harder on 
Greek than on any other school study, so that at the present 
time when Greek is rarely or never compulsory in school 
studies, ignorance of Greek often becomes compulsory. We 
8 See Chapter IT, 


GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 255 


ire not asking that pupils in our schools be compelled to study 
Greek, but we do ask that all who are fit for the study shall 
ave the unhindered and really encouraging chance to take it. 
This good chance is not provided now. We believe it is the un- 
leniable right of every capable American boy and girl, no 
natter how well or how poorly circumstanced in life, to have 
that chance. It is notorious that “the line of least resistance” 
is now being followed by crowds of students who seek the 
sasier way through school and college. The least we can do in 
justice to those who are willing to take the uphill road of 
studious endeavor is to give them fully accessible opportuni- 
ties, high encouragement and ample rewards. These are not 
given now, although the records of American education show 
that in studious endeavor and in excellence of results the stu- 
dents of Greek usually stand among the very best. 


Section 3. Greek for Latin Teachers 


The intimate relation of Latin to Greek has great impor- 
tance in regard to the training of Latin teachers. The Latin 
teacher who does not know Greek has little knowledge of the 
immense enrichment of Latin which comes through Greek and 
is consequently shut off from full appreciation of Latin. Greek 
teachers know Latin, but only a minority of our Latin teach- 
ers have studied Greek. We therefore urge that all teachers of 
Latin should be trained to know Greek also and that full pro- 
vision be made to ensure this result as soon as possible. It 
will give us better teachers of Latin and will also provide for 
the teaching of Greek in many places where for economic rea- 
sons a separate teacher cannot be allowed for each language. 
It will give better chances for starting new Greek classes un- 
der capable teachers. Some good teaching of Greek is now 
being done by self-sacrificing Latin teachers who have taken 
on this additional work without remuneration. 


256 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Section 4. Combined Teaching of English, Latin 
and Greek 


There is a larger aspect of the question. The intimate re. 
lation of English to Latin and of Latin to Greek offers valu- 
able opportunities for teaching the three languages in muck 
closer connection than is effected at present. Latin stands be- 
tween the other two and is intimate with both. The three nat: 
urally belong together. In the French academic secondary 
schools, or lycées, French, Latin and Greek, les trois langues 
classiques, as the official statements name them, are regularly 
taught by one teacher.® Thus the teacher of Latin and Greek 
knows how to teach French and the teacher of French knows 
how to teach Latin and Greek. Such a method unifies and clayri- 
fies the teaching and helps to explain the generally better at- 
tainments of French pupils in their native tongue and in the 
classics also. 

While French is more closely interwoven with Latin than 
is English, the large amount of material common to English 
and Latin and the larger amount common to Knglish and the 
two classical languages combined—much larger in either case 
than the amount common to English and any or all other 
foreign languages—show that the wider scope and clearer 
unity contemplated in the French plan should be favored in 
our schools to the largest degree which may be found prac- 
ticable. If this is done, we may confidently expect that there 
will be less scattering and resultant waste in our teaching and 
that better progress will be made by our pupils. 


®“Dans toutes les classes l’enseignment du fran¢ais, du latin et du gree 
est confié au méme professeur,” Journal Officiel: Arrété relatif aua 
Horaires et aux Programmes, December 13, 1923. Also published in more 


convenient form by the Librairie Vibert, Boulevard Saint-Germain, Paris, 
1923. 


GENERAL CONCLUSIONS Q57 


Section 5. Combined Teaching of Classical and 
Modern Foreign Languages 


_ A similar comity in teaching should also be favored in re- 
spect to the modern foreign languages. The intimacy of 
french, Spanish and Latin is so close as to promise excellent 
results from codperative or from combined teaching. A teach- 
sr who is qualified to teach French, Spanish and Latin has 
nany advantages over a teacher of equal ability who is quali- 
ied to teach only one of these languages. This is also true, 
though in lesser degree, with respect to German. As in the 
sase of English, codperative or combined teaching of classical 
und modern languages may be expected to produce better re- 
sults with the pupils and to extend the spirit of comradeship 
among teachers who have so many problems in common. There 
are probably nearly forty thousand teachers of foreign lan- 
guages, classical and modern, in our secondary schools and a 
much larger number of teachers of English. The more the 
spirit of codperation spreads among the teachers of all these 
languages, the more surely may we expect richer results in 
each language taught. 


Section 6. The Six-Year Latin Course 


In our four-year secondary schools the pupils enter at 
about fourteen and graduate at about eighteen years of age. 
[It is not practicable or desirable to extend the school period 
later. School Latin must therefore be restricted to four years 
unless it is to begin earlier. So far as we know there isa 
general though not complete agreement among educational 
authorities that it would be much better to begin the study of 
Latin two years earlier. There are some opportunities now 
given to do so. It is to be desired that these opportunities be 
made more generally accessible. They already exist in many of 


258 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


our junior high schools, in six-year classical schools and else 

where. It is the universal practice in the school systems of 
other countries, even in the four-year courses of England and 
Germany as well as in the standard six-year, seven-year or 
nine-year courses of England, France, Germany and Italy. — 

Moreover, there are important reasons for making the 
course in Latin longer than four years in case it is begun 
earlier. By beginning two years earlier and continuing for 
six years the course can be more fully developed and thereby 
made more effective. It would also be completed within the 
upper age limit now reached by pupils completing the se 
four-year course. The study would then start at a time 
when pupils are much more responsive to sounds, words and rl 
sayings and when they also have the greatest pleasure in learn- 
ing by the simple process of imitation. There will be a better 
chance to anticipate and obviate mistakes in their use of bot 
English and Latin and to prepare them for reading easy Latin 
earlier. By beginning two years earlier and continuing the 
study for two years longer than in the present four-year 
course it will be practicable to develop more deeply rooted 
habits of accuracy and thoroughness, a larger reading in the 
authors, greater facility in the reading and broader appre- 
ciation of the literary and historical influences flowing fro 
the subject. It will also furnish those who go on to colleg 
greater power to read college Latin with certainty and speed 
and thus the opportunity to gain a larger first-hand acquaint= 
ance with Latin literature. 

In order to attain these results it is most important tha 
the six-year course shall not be broken into two loosely con 
nected or disjointed three-year units. Whether provided in 
two stages in junior and senior high schools or in any other 
way, it should be a continuous course for all who take it, ne 
matter at what point they stop. Very many pupils woul 
probably have to discontinue their study of Latin at the end 








GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 259 


of three years. These pupils should have a good continuous 
course all the way they go and those who go farther should 
also have a good continuous course all the way they go. No 
irremovable antagonism between the interests of these two 
classes of pupils is involved. The way to arrange matters to 
the satisfaction of all concerned is to organize the six-year 
course in two cycles, the earlier three-year cycle being of a 
more general and the later three-year cycle of a more special 
nature, somewhat as is done in the new plan of study for the | 
French lycées.*° We firmly believe that the danger of discon- 
tinuity and of consequent waste and dissatisfaction in a six- 
year Latin course can be completely obviated only by organiz- 
ing it in two well connected stages. It is not difficult to do 
wherever there is a readiness to do it. 

The value of longer continuity in leading secondary 
school studies is commonly admitted, though not always ap- 
preciated. It is sometimes erroneously supposed that each 
successive year of progress in a study is almost or altogether 
equal and is somewhat like piling blocks of the same size and 
shape one on top of the other. This overlooks the two facts 
that the pupil’s maturity ordinarily increases each year and 
that the results coming from a fairly well taught study are 
cumulative, so that for both reasons each succeeding year 1s 
usually worth more than the year before it. Each added year 
thus represents the addition not of an equal but of a larger 
volume. It is not like the lengthening of a tube, but like the 
expansion of a cone,—each following year starting with a 
larger basal area. Such is the increase which may be expected 
in varying extent with any fairly good teaching, though not 
to any large extent with poor teaching. This cumulative gain 
obtained from a study is naturally less in subjects of descrip- 
tive and informational character than in subjects of highly 


10 Journal Officiel, May 4, 1923, p. 4383. Also in the Journal for December 
13, 1923, the Arrété relatif aux Horaires et aux Programmes, p. 1. 


260 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


organized character wherein the very definite structural con- 
nections are constantly offering opportunities for successively 
relating one part to another and thus for combining the whole 
subject it one view. The Latin language has a highly organ- 
ized character and its literature forms a genetically developed 
whole. ‘The opportunities for cumulative gain in the study of 
Latin are therefore very numerous and promising. Itis evident 
that they will be greater in a six-year than in a four-year 
course and also greater than in the ratio of six to four. This 
consideration of course applies to Greek also and to all studies 
of highly organized nature. 


Section 7. The Six-Year Secondary School 


Six-year secondary schools exist here and there in our land, 
but the four-year school is the most usual type. It has done 
and is doing much good. It should not be weakened. We be- 
lieve it can be made to do much more good by extending it 
downward. It is commonly believed by competent observers 
that four years do not give enough time for properly develop- 
ing our secondary education. It does not begin soon enough | 
and does not last long enough. And as it should not be pro-- 
longed later, the remedy is to begin earlier. To effect this 
transformation from a four-year to a six-year plan without 
injury to existing schools will, of course, require time, pa- 
tience and wisdom. But we believe it can and should be effected. 

Ours is the only important nation in the western civilized 
world which allows secondary education to begin so late and 
contents itself generally with only four years. This largely 
accounts for the undoubted fact, noted again and again by 
those who have studied the situation, that our boys and girls 
at the end of their secondary schooling are practically two 
years behind those who are of about the same age on finishing 
their secondary schooling in other leading countries. This is 
a great public loss. 





GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 261 


The history of our schools shows that an important reason 
why our four-year public high schools have only four years 
is that our elementary schools were organized on an eight- 
year basis in mistaken conformity to the length of the Prussian 
wolkschulen, which stood apart under the old regime as schools 
for the generality of children who were not to go on to further 
education. Moreover, it is now seen that eight years are not 
really necessary for our properly elementary schooling and 
that boys and girls are being kept back from taking the new 
start they need and often desire to take. 

The three-year junior high schools are beginning to meet 
the emergency. The highly encouraging fact here is that these 
newer schools are trying to give many the chance they need to 
have. The two serious embarrassments in this new situation 
are the general lack of teachers trained to do secondary school 
work and the absence of satisfactory correlation between the 
three-year junior and the three-year senior high schools. 
They need to be treated as two parts of one harmonious plan, 
the earlier part of more general and the later part of more 
special character, and not to be disjoined from each other. 
The movement is spreading and it promises to lead to six- 
year secondary schooling all over the land. If the present im- 
perfections are removed, as we believe they can be, the educa- 
tional gains will be immense. 

The chance for establishing generally a well planned six- 
year secondary school education therefore has a far larger 
significance than the proper development of Latin or of any 
other individual study. It presents the one available oppor- 
tunity for putting our whole secondary academic education 
on a satisfactory basis. On an intelligently arranged six-year 
plan all secondary studies would have a far better chance for 
their proper development at the time when they should be de- 
veloped and with the time needed to develop them. By shorten- 
ing the period of elementary schooling from eight years to 


262 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


six, thus subtracting the time now admittedly not used ad- 
vantageously and not really needed, the opportunity would 
also be given to organize our elementary schools on clearly 
elementary lines. By the establishment of a longer and better 
secondary education, the pupils who go no farther than the 
secondary school will be better educated and the pupils who 
go on to colleges or other higher institutions will be better 
able to go ahead with their advanced studies. The colleges in 
turn will be relieved from the retarding and embarrassing 
task of teaching school studies in college and the way will thus 
be cleared for advances in college and university studies. 

The secondary school and not the university is now the stra- 
tegic center from which to attack the whole problem of 
reconstructing American education. England, France and 
Italy have already found this to be true in their educational 
reconstruction following the World War. The method for 
solving the whole problem is clear and it is most important 
that it shall be followed. If the principle of sufficient continu- 
ity in separate leading studies is consistently followed, it will 
naturally lead to adopting the correlative principle of coher- 
ence as regulative for arranging studies when taken together, 
whether concurrently or in sequence. If the two principles are 
followed steadily and clearly, the work of rationally organiz-_ 
ing all our studies, both secondary and higher, will be well 
started on the way to complete accomplishment. 


Section 8. The Classics in England, France, Germany 
and Italy Since the World War 


A full review of the fortunes of Latin and Greek in the sec- 
ondary education of England, France and Germany for the 
last thirty years or more, including the changes made since 
the World War, will form a separate part of this investi- 
gation.” 


'1 Part IIT: The Classics in England, France and Germany. By Dr, I. L. 
Kandel, Teachers College, Columbia University. 





GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 263 


In England the Education Act of 1921 provided a general 
plan for reconstruction after the war.” Secondary education 
is being widely extended and assisted by government grants. 
Wherever as many as two foreign languages are to be taught 
in these “‘grant-earning” schools, Latin is usually to be one 
of the two.’* Large provision is also made for Greek.** The 
whole question of the classics in British education was thor- 
oughly studied by the Prime Minister’s Committee and the 
results of their inquiries are embodied in an elaborate and 
very able Report.” The work of the Classical Association, 
begun long before the war, has also exerted a powerful salu- 
tary influence in shaping opinion and in helping to formulate 
the reconstruction. Taking all the various secondary schools, 
new and old, in one view, it is clear that better organization of 
the work is being developed, improved methods are coming 
into more general use, insistent emphasis is put on the better 
training of teachers and the classical education in British 
schools is being extended more widely than ever before. The 
codperation of British labor leaders to this end has been 
especially notable. 

The most momentous change is found in France, where the 
plan of 1902 for the lycées has been superseded by the new 
plan which went into effect in October, 1923. After twenty 
years of experiment in the other direction with varying pro- 
grammes of study, classical, semi-classical and non-classical, 
and after prolonged discussion in view of conditions before, 
during and since the World War, France has decided that the 
classics are to be required in the lycées as an essential part of 
liberal education. M. Léon Bérard, Minister of Public Instruc- 


12 Education Act, 1921 (11 and 12, Geo. 5, Ch. 51). H. M. Stationery 
Office, Imperial House, Kingsway, London. 

13 Statutory Rules and Orders, 1921, No. 1461, pp. 8, 14, 15. H. M. Sta- 
tionery Office, London. 

14 Tbid., pp. 14, 15. 

15 The Classics in Education, 1921. H. M. Stationery Office, London. 


264 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


tion, in his letter of May 8, 1923, to President Millerand 
states the main reason for this decision as follows: “Experi- 
ence and not theory is what counts in this case. It is experience 
that shows.the defects in a plan of studies. Those disciplines 
which it has tested and approved are the surest, even though 
they be the oldest.’’'® 

In promulgating the new plan M. Bérard had followed the 
lawful method of procedure. Nevertheless the public discus- 
sion, especially of the requirement of the classics, was so ani- 
mated that the matter came up by interpellation in the Cham- 
ber of Deputies. The extended debate continued at successive 
sessions from May 8 to July 11, 1923, when the Chamber of 
Deputies voted by a large majority in favor of the new plan.” 
The plan, thus confirmed, has gone into effect throughout 
France. The scientific, literary, professional and commercial 
forces of France, with some very notable exceptions, sup- 
ported the plan and whatever opposition was shown to it in 
the Chamber of Deputies seemed in general to be political 
rather than educational. 


'6 Journal Officiel, May 4, 1923, p. 4380. This issue contains M. Bérard’s 
letter and the complete text of the Decree of May 3, 1923. These two 
documents are given in English translation in “The New Establishment of 
the Classics in the Secondary Schools of France,” published by the Amer- 
ican Classical League, Princeton, New Jersey. The detailed programme 
of studies is given in the Journal Officiel for December 13, 1923, in the 
Arrété relatif aux Horaires et aux Programmes. The literature of the 
subject in official publications and in the public press is very large. 
Specially valuable information is to be found in the issues during 1922 
and 1923 of the Bulletin Administratif du Ministére de VInstruction 
Publique et des Beaux Arts, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, of the Revue 
Universitaire, Librairie Armand Colin, 103 Boulevard Saint-Michel, 
Paris, and of the Journal Officiel de la République Frangaise, 31 Quai 
Voltaire, Paris. 

17 A full report of the debate and vote is given in the Bulletin Officiel de 
la Fédération Nationale des Professeurs de Lycée for July-August-Sep- 
tember, 1923, pp. 804-1206, Cahors, Imprimerie Typographique A. Coues- 
lant. Consult also Léon Bérard: Pour la Réforme Classique, Librairie 
Armand Colin, 103 Boulevard Saint-Michel, Paris, 1923. 


pee 


THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 
PART ONE 


GENERAL REPORT 


Note to page 265 


Since this volume was printed, news has come of an impor- 
tant modification of the new French plan of study for the — 
lycées. By the decree of August 12, 1924, of M. Albert, the — 
new Minister of Education, an alternative to Latin is per- 
mitted in place of making Latin compulsory for all. Otherwise 
the decree of May 3, 1923, is not altered. The text of the © 
alteration and the reasons therefor are published in the — 
Journal Officiel for August 12, 1924, and are fully commented 
on in Le Temps for August 13, 1924. 





i 


GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 265 


‘The new French plan has the extraordinary merit of se- 
lecting subjects of widely recognized educational importance 
and organizing them clearly, consistently and effectively in 
one system. Nothing is left at loose ends. Everything is based 
on the conception of the rational relation of the studies and 
their adaptability, severally and collectively, to the develop- 
ment of young students seeking a distinctively academic edu- 
cation. The mother tongue, the two classical languages, mod- 
ern languages, mathematics, elementary sciences, physics and 
chemistry, with history and geography, constitute the im- 
pressive programme required of all, while in the later stage 
equal choice is given between the classical and modern sides. 
Moreover, it is to be noted that while provision is made for 
this one type of seven-year academic school in preparation 
for the universities, full provision is also made for four-year 
academic schools (the “advanced primary schools’) and for 
technical schools. It is also a most notable fact that the entire 
new plan for secondary schools has been formed on a review 
of twenty years’ experience in the other direction and of the 
effects of the war, after prolonged public discussion and with 
the sanction of the legislative authority of the nation. It is 
the most thorough piece of educational reconstruction done 
since the war in any land. 

In Germany the situation is not so clear, although the 
main features are discernible.** Two conflicting tendencies, 
with many inner variations, are at work. One is the intensely 
nationalistic spirit which, consciously or unconsciously fol- 
lowing the educational leading of the former Kaiser Wilhelm 
II, would make the German language, literature and history 
the one center of organization for secondary school studies 
and would minimize or abolish the classics, some even going so 
18 The statements here made regarding the German secondary schools 


are based mainly on Dr. I. L. Kandel’s study: The Clessics in England, 
France and Germany. 


266 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


far as to favor exclusion of the modern foreign languages 
also. The other is the more cosmopolitan spirit, not untouched 
by just pride in Germany’s memorable achievements in clas- 
sical education and scholarship, which seeks to combine Ger- 
man and classical culture. 

Matters are in a state of confused transition and it is very 
difficult to foresee the probable result. As yet no general re- 
construction or revision has been made. The former nine-year 
school in its threefold form of gymnasiwm, realgymnasium 
and realschule still stands as before, but its strength has been 
impaired by the grave political, social and economic disturb- 
ances which have lessened the attendance of pupils and have 
borne heavily on the entire teaching staff of the nation. 

The recently developed reformgymnasium and other schools 
of similar type offer a six-year course or less and include the 
classics in varying degree. It seems probable that such 
schools will increase at the expense of the nine-year schools, 
though the measure of this prospective increase is still very 
uncertain. Other changes in progress, due to actual or pro- 
posed schools, have not developed sufficiently to warrant any 
prediction as to the extent of their effects. 

The only fairly safe general statements as to the situation 
in German secondary education seem to be those advanced by 
Dr. Kandel.” These are that we have at present no evidence 
sufficient to show what has been the effect of conditions fol- 
lowing the war upon any type of German secondary educa- 
tion and that the outcome is likely to be a compromise re- 
sulting in the development of a cosmopolitan academic school 
which will be more fully adaptable to emerging conditions and 
within which the classical tradition will continue with im- 
proved methods and with effective results. 

There has not yet been opportunity to examine official re- 


19 Part III: The Classics in England, France and Germany, By Ds. I. L. 
Kandel, Teachers College, Columbia University. . 


GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 267 


ports on the recent changes in the Italian academic secondary 
schools, or licet. Statements in the public press” describe in 
general the revision which has been made. The outstanding 
change in classical studies is the requirement of Latin in the 
seven-year course. 

In England, France, Germany and Italy the second- 
ary school, including within it the problem of school Latin 
and Greek, has engrossed educational attention since the war. 
The settling of the place and function of the classics has been 
a most influential factor in affecting the character of the 
plans which have been adopted. In each of these countries, 
except in Germany, a general reconstruction has been formu- 
lated and put into operation, and one important general re- 
sult has been the improvement and strengthening of the clas- 
sics as an integral part of academic secondary education. 


20 The New York Evening Post, July 14, 1923. The New York Hvening 
Mail, January 22, 1924. 





APPENDIX A 


nee I-XIII Inuustratine Cuarrer II 


TABLE I 


Estimated enrolment in foreign languages in the secondary schools of the conti- 
nental United States in 1923-1924, including pupils in the 7th and 8th grades of 
junior high schools. 


LATIN GREEK FRENCH GERMAN SPANISH ITALIAN 
SWEDISH, HEBREW, ETC. 


PUBLIC 815,000 3,000 465,000 28,000 305,000 
PRIVATE 125,000 8,000 75,000 12,000 25,000 


TOTAL 940,000 11,000 540,000 40,000 330,000 5,000 





Latin 940,000. Other foreign languages combined 926,000. 


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THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


272 


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273 


APPENDIX A 


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THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


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276 


TABLE V 


THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Percentage of pupils enrolled in Latin in different types of public and private 
secondary schools in 1921-1922 (approximately 76% reporting) not including 
pupils in the 7th and 8th grades of junior high schools. 


Public high schools: 
In places of 100,000 and over 


In places of 30,000 to 100,000 
In places of 2,500 to 30,000 


In places of under 2,500 
Total 


Private schools 


Public and private schools 


TOTAL LATIN 
ENROLMENT ENROLMENT 
590,374 137,730 
245,631 63,032 
605,581 173,156 
713,874 219,168 
2,155,460 593,086 
180,163 (95,461 
2,335,623 688,547 





PERCENTAGE 


23.3 
25.7 
28.6 
30.7 


—_——. 


27.5 


53.0 


29.5 


Note: The lower percentage of Latin enrolment in the larger towns and cities is 
partly due to the fact that the larger towns and cities contain most of the techni- 
cal and commercial secondary schools. In these schools Latin is seldom taught. 


TABLE VI 


Gain or loss by percentages in foreign language enrolment in 1921-1922 as com- 
pared with 1914-1915 (not including pupils in the 7th and 8th grades of junior 


high schools). 
LATIN 
Public high schools: 
1914-1915 ico 
1921-1922 27.6 
Gain or loss —9.8 
Private schools: 
1914-1915 54.9 
1921-1922 53.0 
Gain or loss —1.9 


GREEK FRENCH GERMAN 
0.3 8.8 24.4 
0.1 15.5 0.6 

—i0.2 + 6.7 — 23.8 
5.8 26.7 22.3 
3.4 32.5 3.2 

—2.4 +5.8 —1 9,1. 


SPANISH 


2.4 
11.3 
+8.9 


2.7 
11.7 
+9.0 


The approximate change in actual enrolment during these 7 years was as follows 
(public and private schools combined, 7th and 8th grades not included): 


Latin +125,000, Greek —6,500, French +305,000, German —460,000, 


Spanish +295,000. 


APPENDIX A 


TABLE VII 


Q77 


Estimated distribution of foreign language enrolment in 1923-1924 by grades. 


PUBLIC SCHOOLS 


7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 
LATIN 4,890 11,410 374,900 256,725 114,100 52,975 
GREEK ; 300 1,110 990 600 
FRENCH 6,975 11,625 116,250 144,150 120,900 65,100 
GERMAN 200 300 9,400 8,100 6,700 3,300 
SPANISH 2,200 6,200 110,500 97,500 61,000 27,600 
By percentages. 

7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 
Total enrolment 4 5 35 Q5 18 13 
LATIN “OG 1.4 46 31.5 14 6.5 
GREEK 10 37 $$ 20 
FRENCH 16 9.5 95 31 26 14 
‘GERMAN 0.7 1.1 33.6 28.9 23.9 11.8 
SPANISH Hee 2.0 36.2 $2 20 9.1 
TABLE VIII 


Total 


815,000 
3,000 
465,000 
28,000 
305,000 


Total 


100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 


Estimated distribution of foreign language enrolment in 1923-1924 by years (or 


grades). 


LATIN 
GREEK 
FRENCH 
GERMAN 
SPANISH 


By percentages. 


Total enrolment 
LATIN 

GREEK 

FRENCH 
GERMAN 
SPANISH 


First 
Year 
(9th) 
48,750 
880 
16,500 
3,100 
5,250 


First 
Year 


(9th) 


PRIVATE SCHOOLS 


Second 


Year 
(10th) 


35,000 
2,560 
22,500 
3,200 
7,500 


Third 
Year 
(11th) 
25,000 
2,640 
21,000 
3,400 
7,250 


Second Third 


Year 


(10th) 


Year 
(11th) 


22 
20 
33 
28 
28.3 
29 


Fourth 
Year 
(12th) 
16,250 
1,920 
15,000 
2,300 
5,000 


Fourth 
Year 


(12th) 


Total 


125,000 
8,000 
75,000 
12,000 
25,000 


Total 


100 
100 
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100 
100 
100 


THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


278 


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XI WIAV.L 


279 


APPENDIX A 











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THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


280 





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X TIAVIL 


= 


APPENDIX A 281 
TABLE XI 


Certain facts as to the educational qualifications of 10,439 teachers of Latin in 
secondary schools—about 46% of the total number. 


DEGREES! YEARS OF LATIN STUDIED 
A.B. ACN. . L Q 3 4 5 6 7 8 
or more 
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS 
Places of 100,000 and over; 985 teachers reporting 
881 225 Q 1 4 “AL DD 102 147 643 
89.4% 22.8 2 ah A S. 5.8 10.3 14.9 65.3 
Places of from 30,000 to 100,000; 494 teachers reporting 
422 58 1 1 a — 23 SY. 67 89 Q73 
85.5% 11.7 4 Ane 2 6 4.6 ‘cae 13.6 18. 55.8 
Places of from 2,500 to 30,000; 1,885 teachers reporting 
1,618 149 3 16 44 173 Q15 362 Q71 801 
85.8% 7.9 sa | 9 2.3 9.2 11.4 19.2 14.4 42.5 


Places of under 2,500; 5,387 teachers reporting 


3,399 199 34 269 457 1,240 935 931 536 965 
63.1% 3.7 ai) 5.0 8.5 23.0 17.4 17.4 10.0 18.0 


TOTAL PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS, 8,751 teachers reporting 


6,320 631 40 287 508 1,467 1,242 1,462 1,063 2,682 
712.3% 74 oO 3.3 5.8 16.8 14.0 16.7 12.2 30.7 


PRIVATE SCHOOLS; 1,688 teachers reporting 


1,295 266 1 41 46 191 158 336 163 752 
76.7% 15.8 oi Cae 2.7 11.3 9.2 20.0 9.6 44.6 


TOTAL PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS; 10,439 teachers reporting 


7,615 897 41 328 554 1,658 1,400 1,798 1,226 3,434 
72.9% 8.6 A 3.1 5.3 16.1 13.4 Lil Lis 32.9 


1 The degrees are to be read in terms of equivalents. A.B. means eight years of 
work beyond the elementary schools, with an A.B. or corresponding degree. 
A.M. means nine years of work with an advanced degree. 

Sixty-six (0.6%) of the 10,439 teachers hold the degree of Ph.D. and 919 (9%) 
have studied or traveled abroad. 

About 25% of the total number have not gone beyond the secondary stage in 
their own study of Latin. About 27% have studied Greek, one-half of these not 
going beyond the secondary stage. 

It is probable that the percentage of degree holders (both A.B. and A.M.) 
among the teachers appointed during the past ten years is considerably larger 
than indicated above. 


282 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


TABLE XI (2) 


Certain facts as to the educational qualifications of 10,439 teachers of Latin in 
secondary schools—about 46% of the total number. 


DEGREES YEARS OF GREEK STUDIED 
ASD ates 1 2 3 $ 5 6. 7 Total 
or more 
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS 


Places of 100,000 and over; 985 teachers reporting 


881 225 49 66 96 91 64 67 =—s« 183 616 
89.4% 22.8 5. 6.7 9.7 9.2 6.5 6.8 18.6 62.5 


Places of from 30,000 to 100,000; 494 teachers reporting 


422 58 30 29 31 33 22 19 34 198 
85.5%, 31.7 6.1 6.0 6.3 6.7 4.4 3.8 6.8 40.1 


. Places of from 2,500 to 30,000; 1,885 teachers reporting 

1,618 149 . 100 126 73 91 54 40 46 530 

85.8% 7.9 5.8 6.7 3.9 4.8 2.9 2.1 2.4 28.1 
Places of under 2,500; 5,387 teachers reporting 

3,399 199 228 175 167 125 49 31 41 816 

63.1% et 4.2 3.2 3.2 2.3 9 6 8 15.5 
TOTAL PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS, 8,751 teachers reporting 

6,320 631 407 $96 3867.- 840 189 157 304 2,160 

12.3% 7.4 4.6 4.5 4.2 3.9 2.2 1.8 3.5 24.7 
PRIVATE SCHOOLS; 1,688 teachers reporting 

1,295 266 59 80 83 128 74 53 162 639 

76.7% 15.8 3.5 4.7 4.9 7.6 4.4 3.1 9.5 37.8 
TOTAL PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS; 10,439 teachers reporting 


7,615 897 466 476 450 468 263 210 466 2,799 
72.9% 8.6 4.5 4.6 4.3 4.5 2.5 2.0 4.5 26.8 


283 


APPENDIX A 


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APPENDIX B 


s 


QuorTatTions ON Mernops or TEACHING THE CoMPREHENSION 
oF Latin 


(See Chapter V, Section 5) 


The following quotation is from the Report of the Commit- 
tee of Ten:* 


“Learning to Understand the Latin. The success of the 
student in one of the points most essential to the attainment 
of power to read, namely, in learning to understand his 
author in his author’s tongue, will depend in a large de- 
gree upon the attitude of mind of his teacher. The latter 
should from the very beginning hold up the idea that the 
highest aim of Latin scholarship, on the literary side, is 
to be able to read Latin, as every competent scholar learns 
to read French and German, with a direct comprehension 
and enjoyment of the very words written by the author, 
not of an English substitute made by the reader. The stu- 
dent should be taught to regard translation, not as a means 
of finding out what his author has said, but as, on the one 
hand, a way of making it clear to his instructor that he has 
understood and, on the other, an exercise in expression,— 
a literary exercise,—in his own tongue. And finally it 
should be shown him that, even on the most practical 
grounds, to attempt to find out the meaning of a Latin sen- 
tence through translating it (as the common way is) is an 
operation almost sure to miscarry; that the Latin, as in 
the case of a qui-clause, an wt-clause, a cum-clause, etc., 
often uses a single word as connective, where the English 
would employ one or another out of a large group (e.g., 
for the wt-clause, ‘when,’ ‘just as,’ ‘although,’ ‘in order to,’ 
‘so that’), and that to translate by anything whatsoever, 
1See Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary School Subjects pub- 


lished for the National Education Association by the American Book 
Company (1894), pp. 70-72, 


APPENDIX B 289 


before the complete evidence of the entire sentence has 
been had and the relation of part to part seen, is to run a 
very large risk of going astray at this point, and of being 
led still further, afield in other points in the unconscious at- 
tempt to make them consistent with the first mistake. But 
the student dealing with a language in which the form of the 
sentence is entirely new to him is naturally prone to go 
astray in precisely this way. He should therefore constant- 
ly receive practical help. Practice in translating at sight, 
or more exactly in understanding at sight, under the in- 
structor’s eye and then translating ought to be given daily, 
or at least very frequently. In general, the best passage for 
the purpose will be the passage immediately following the 
lesson of the day, for the double -reason that the student is 
familiar with the context and that, when the additional 
exercise carries him straight on to his end, he feels the 
reality of his progress. The Latin should always be read 
aloud, sometimes by a student, sometimes by the master, 
before any translation is ventured upon. The master should 
stop the student here and there, if his way of reading shows 
that his grouping is wrong, or if any indication proves that 
he has not understood; and other pupils should be asked to 
correct him. Where a word is employed to give notice in 
advance that something is coming, this should be made clear 
by the way of reading. Where a Latin word calls for some 
construction yet to come to complete its meaning, and 
either of several constructions may be employed according 
to the exact shade of the author’s thought (as, e.g., dtco 
may be followed by the interrogative subjunctive clause, 
or by the infinitive, or by an wt- or ne-clause, according as 
the idea is of asking a question, or stating a fact, or giving 
a direction), this range of possibilities should be pointed 
out (unless it has already been pointed out so frequently 
that the class has become familiar with it); after which 
nothing further need be said when the completing construc- 
tion, thus already foreseen as a possibility or certainty, is 
actually reached. Where there is danger of going astray 
through misapprehension of the syntax of a word, the con- 
struction (i.e., the force of the case, the mode, or the tense) 
should be asked for, No question upon construction should 


290 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


be put except as a means of guiding the class to an under- 
standing of the meaning of the Latin and consequently 
every question of this sort should precede the translation. 

“‘When a sentence is manifestly easy, and has probably 
been understood by the class, it is well to pass straight on 
without translating it. The greater part of what is read 
will, however, require translation. 

“The habit of trying to understand a sentence in the 
original, before translating, will be more easily acquired, 
if the teacher will from time to time put a new passage upon 
the board, a word or phrase at a time, or, better yet, read 
it aloud, calling attention as he goes along, by comment or 
question, to indications of meaning which would have 
guided a Roman, but asking for no translation until the 
whole passage has been written or read. 

“In the preparation of his daily lesson by himself, the 
student should be urged to study the Latin, in entire faith- 
fulness to the aims stated above, in the order in which it 
is written, without any skipping about. The sentence should 
be read through once, twice or, if necessary, three times in 
the Latin, with no reference to the making of a translation 
but with the mind fixed upon grasping the meaning directly. 
If the effort has in part failed, the student may then help 
himself by making a rough rendering of the sentence, word 
by word, still in the Latin order, and with great suspense 
of mind in the case of words that are capable of corre- 
sponding to a variety of phrases in English. This rough 
rendering, however, must be regarded as a mere temporary 
expedient, as the last resort for getting at the meaning, 
not, of course, as translation into English. The prepara- 
tion for the translation to be given in the class-room is an 
entirely different exercise and should be the last act of the 
preparation of the lesson.” 


The following quotation is from the Report of the Com- 
mission on College Entrance Requirements” and appears in 
the regular announcement of the College Entrance Examina- 
tion Board: 


2 See Proceedings of the American Philological Association, XLI (1910) 
cxxxvii. 


APPENDIX B 291 


“¥xercises in translation at sight should begin in school 
with the first lessons in which Latin sentences of any length 
occur, and should continue throughout the course with suf- 
ficient frequency to insure correct methods of work on the 
part of the student. From the outset particular attention 
should be given to developing the ability to take in the 
meaning of each word—and so, gradually, of the whole sen- 
tence—just as it stands; the sentence should be read and 
understood in the order of the original, with full apprecia- 
tion of the force of each word as it comes, so far as this 
can be known or inferred from that which has preceded and 
from the form and the position of the word itself. The habit 
of reading in this way should be encouraged and cultivated 
as the best preparation for all the translating that the stu- 
dent has to do.” 


The following quotations are from Professor Hale’s “The 
Art of Reading Latin” :* 


“The Latin sentence is constructed upon a plan entirely 
different from that of the English sentence. Until that plan 
is just as familiar to the student as the English plan, until, 
for page after page, he takes in ideas as readily and natur- 
ally on the one plan as on the other, until, in short, a single 
steady reading of the sentence carries his mind through the 
very same development of thought that took place in the 
mind of the writer, he cannot read Latin otherwise than 
slowly and painfully. So, then, an absolutely essential thing 
to a man who wants to read Latin is a perfect working 
familiarity with the Roman ways of constructing sentences. 

“T remember well how I was taught at Phillips Exeter 
Academy—of revered memory—to attack a Latin sentence. 
‘First find your verb, and translate it,’ said my teacher. 
‘Then find your subject, and translate. Then find the modi- 
fiers of the subject, then the modifiers of the verb,’ etc., etc. 
Well, [had got more than four years beyond Exeter before 
I learned to read Latin with any feeling but that it was a 
singularly circuitous and perverted way of expressing 


8 W. G. Hale, The Art of Reading Latin, Mentzer, Burk & Co. (1887), 
pp. 7-8 and 12-15. 


292 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


ideas, which I could not expect to grasp until [had reformed 
my author’s sentences and reduced them to English. 

“Now, all this is wrong. It is a frightful source of con- 
fusion to prowl about here and there in the sentence in a 
self-blinded way that would seem pathetic to a Roman, 
looking at things without the side-lights afforded to him by 
the order ; and, further, it is a frightful waste of time. Take 
a sentence such as often occurs; e.g., the opening of the 
third oration against Catiline, delivered before the people. 
Imagine, now, two scenes: on the one hand, the Roman 
Forum, on Dec. 3, 63 3B.c., with a mass of men and boys 
listening to Cicero as he tells the story of the entangling 
of the conspirators remaining in Rome; on the other, a 
modern schoolroom, on Dec. 3, 1886 a.p. In the former case 
Cicero has the floor, as we say; in the latter case, the teach- 
er, book in hand, his pupils before him. Both audiences want 
to get at the same thing,—what Cicero has to say. In the 
first scene Cicero proceeds: . 


‘Rem publicam, Quirites, vitamque omniwm vestrum, 
bona, fortunas, coniuges liberosque vestros, atque hoc 
domicilium clarissimi imperi, fortunatissimam pulcher- 
rimamque urbem, hodierno die deorum immortalium sum- 
mo erga vos amore, laboribus consiliis periculis meis, e 
flamma atque ferro ac paene ex faucibus fati ereptam et 
vobis conservatam ac restitutam videtis.’ 


“When he has said that, every soul that has heard him 
knows precisely what he means. Now change to the modern 
schoolroom. The teacher says, ‘First find your subject.’ So 
we run on, scenting out a subject: 


‘Rem publicam, Quirites, vitamque omnium vestrum, 
bona, fortunas, coniuges liberosque vestros, atque hoc 
domacilium clarissimi imperi, fortunatissimam pulcher- 
rimamque urbem, hodierno die deorum immortalium sum- 
mo erga vos amore, laboribus consiliis periculis meis, e 
flamma atque ferro ac paene ex faucibus fati ereptam et 
vobis conservatam ac restitutam videtis.’ 


“Well, we are through with the entire sentence, and there 
is no subject ! Of course, then, it is implied in the verb, and 


APPENDIX B 293 


is the second personal pronoun, in the plural. Next we find 
our verb. That is, as it happens, the last word, videtis. Then 
we go back, do we, and find the modifiers of the subject and 
then the modifiers of the verb? No, I say to all that. We 
have already, if we have been rightly brought up, under- 
stood everything in that sentence by the time we reach the 
last syllable of it, without having thought meanwhile of a 
single English word; and we are as ready im 1886 to go on 
immediately with the neat sentence as we should have been 
if we had been Romans in the Roman Forum on that day in 
63 z.c. Or, to put it another way, the boy who, reaching 
that oration in the course of his preparation for college, 
cannot understand that particular sentence, and a great 
many much more difficult sentences in the oration, from 
reading it straight through once in the Latin, nay, from 
merely hearing his teacher read it straight through once mn 
the Latin, has been wrongly trained, is wasting time sadly 
out of a human life all too short, and so far from being on 
the direct way to read Latin with speed and relish, and then 
to proceed to do so, is on the direct way to drop it just as 
soon as the elective system of his particular college will 
allow; and if he cares for literature, to go into some lan- 
guage in which it is not necessary, first to find the subject, 
and then the predicate, and then the modifiers of the sub- 
ject, and then the modifiers of the predicate, and then to do 
the same thing for the subordinate sentence, or, if there are 
several subordinate sentences, to do the same thing for each 
one of them in the order of their importance, and then to 
put these tattered bits together into a patchwork. 

“Now, it will not do to say that students, by beginning 
in this way, get quite early beyond the need of it. At any 
rate, I can testify from my own experience that, in spite 
of the admirable efforts of the schools in ‘sight-reading,’ 
they do not, when they come to Harvard or Cornell. I allow 
myself in my class-room—keeping well inside of what is 
said to be customary among college professors—one jest a 
year. When I first meet the new Freshman class (for I could 
not bear to leave such precious material wholly to the most 
perfect assistant) I question them: “Suppose, now, you are 
set, as you were at the examination for admission the other 


294 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


day, to tell me the meaning of a sentence in a book you 
never saw,—say an oration of Cicero,—how do you pro- 
ceed to get at the writer’s meaning?’ There is at once a 
chorus of voices (for they are crammed for that question, 
having learned printed directions, as we have seen, in the 
first books they studied), ‘First find the—sunsxcrt,’ three- 
quarters of them say ; ‘preDICATE,’ the other quarter. ‘Now 
here,’ I say to them, ‘is an unhappy difference of opinion 
about first principles in a matter of everyday practice, and 
of very serious importance. Which is right?’ They do not 
know. ‘Which do you suppose the Romans who heard the 
oration delivered in the Forum first hunted up, the subject 
or the predicate?’ That little jest, simple as it is, always 
meets with great success ; for it not only raises a laugh (of 
no value in itself), but it shows at once, even to a Freshman, 
the entire absurdity of trying to read Latin by a hunting- 
up first of either his subject or his predicate; and so enlists 
his sympathy in favor of trying some other way, if any 
can be shown him. But, at the same time, it proves to me 
that the method taught at the most critical of all periods, 
the beginning, is still wrong. Only in late years, and very 
rarely, does some student answer my question with: ‘First 
read the first Latin word without translating it, then the 
second, then the third, and so on to the end, taking in all 
the possible constructions of every word, while barring out 
at once the impossible, and, above all, erring, if anywhere, 
in the direction of keeping the mind in suspense unneces- 
sarily long, waiting, at least, until a sure solution has been 
given by the sentence itself.’ ” 


The following excerpts are from an article by Professor 
Moore :* 


“Translation from a foreign tongue requires a single 
definite mode of attack, in all essentials the same for a ‘dead’ 
language as for a ‘living one’ It must be precisely the same 
for sentences which reach us through the ear as for those 
which lie before the eye in cold type, except in so far as 


4F. G. Moore, “Haste and Waste in Translating Latin,” The Educational 
Review, LV (May, 1918), pp. 417 ff. 


APPENDIX B 295 





repetition in the latter case is always possible—an advan- 
tage heavily discounted by the temptation to relax atten- 
tion in the first reading, and thus to skirmish half-hearted- 
ly about, instead of risking all upon one frontal attack. 

“Out of word-groups into thought-units, and again out 
of these into new word-groups—this is the double transfer 
which we call translation. And the logical basis for the 
double process is so clear, one is at a loss to account for 
all the confusion which has made it possible to imagine a 
single short-cut process, and to perpetuate its use, with re- 
sults so depressingly negative as to suggest a cynical Var- 
ronian etymology—a non transferendo. 

“The first problem is, of course, how to grasp the 
thought-units of the original, just as they stand. For any 
serious change of order may blunt the main point, and 
sharpen the less important, while even minor changes tend 
to confusion, or at best to unwarranted alterations in the 
scale of emphasis. The original order should never be de- 
serted, even for the moment. Thus each unit must yield its 
meaning, if only in a provisional way, before one ventures 
to go to the next. The second step must not be thought of 
at present. For, obviously enough, we cannot select the 
proper English phrase, or construct a lucid English clause, 
still less an entire sentence, until the successive ideas pre- 
sented by the original have been duly digested. 

‘For the all-important first step, the extraction of clear- 
cut thoughts from certain blocks of words standing in a 
given order in a foreign language, every translator is ob- 
liged to develop more or less consciously no less than four 
special senses. And it is most essential that these be set to 
work in a fixed and uniform order. 

“Pirst to be trained upon the word groups is the gram- 
matical sense—not a deep interest in the problems of 
grammar, but an acquired knack of recognizing groups of 
words, as revealed by inflections, prepositions, and tell-tale 
conjunctions. Until this first sense has completed its task, 
there should be no conscious thought of particular words 
or meanings. That is, the preposition is not consciously 
accounted a word, but all of a piece with the word or words 


296 THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


which it accompanies. And the conjunction is for the mo- 
ment thought of as merely introducing a certain type of 
clause, whose precise function it may not be necessary to 
define at once, but only later in retrospect. In such ways the 
group makes at first only a collective impression. And the 
wary refrain most carefully from dashing in at once to 
translate those multiple conjunctions, wt, cwm, and the 
rest, or even the relative pronoun, knowing that the chances 
of error are very large. This need of discretion the writer 
has elsewhere endeavored to emphasize. 

“On the street at dusk we often pass some one who looks 
familiar. We look hard at him, but only after he has passed 
and we have had time to collect our thoughts do we feel sure 
who it was. So with the words which introduce the depend- 
ent clauses of a Latin sentence. You have no certain clue 
to their identity until you are some distance away. It is 
most embarrassing to call them by the wrong name. There 
remains but one course: never speak to wt or ne, cum or 
dum, quod and the rest as you pass them in the twilight! 

“The grammatical sense must first of all do its work 
with a limited group of words, before there is any distinct 
consciousness of the meaning of the words individually con- 
sidered. | 

“This done, the second or lexical sense is now brought 
into action. It is based upon memory of the meanings of 
words and word-combinations, with some knowledge of the 
leading principles of word-formation, permitting inferences 
as to formations which appear at first blush new, but in 
reality contain familiar material. The lexical sense is, of 
course, more or less dependent upon information to be 
freshly sought in lexicon or vocabulary. Too often this 
sense receives little training that could be called methodical, 
and is thus forced to feel its way blindly, recognizing per- 
haps the first syllable or two of a word, and rashly ignoring 
the remainder, upon which alone depends our hope of dif- 
ferentiating words which closely resemble each other in out- 
ward appearance—such groups, for example, as aura, au- 
rum, auris or calva, calvus, calvis where confusion seems 
to be the habitual state of the student mind. He has been 





APPENDIX B 297 


content to make a wild guess or to look up in his vocabulary 
that particular one of these words which occurs in today’s 
lesson. ‘Tomorrow he will repeat the same mechanical pro- 
cess and never face the problem of drawing sharp lines of 
distinction, to be stored away in memory for future refer- 
ence, as can be so easily done, with the help in part of the 
corresponding French words, or by a mnemonic device. 

“Next in order, in the reduction of a given word-group, 
a third sense is called into play. This sense has to do with 
rhetoric, which does not mean a mastery of all the figures 
and the endless terminology of the Greeks. It does mean 
quickness to observe the emphasis of word-order, the high 
relief of contrasts, and other familiar devices by which 
clearness or force is given to the expression of a thought, 
including the simpler figures. Many a dismal failure to com- 
prehend the main thought of a sentence is due to the reluc- 
tance of teachers to recognize the importance of rhetoric, 
and to make clear to their pupils that grammatical literal- 
ness is distinctly a vice, if attained only by overlooking the 
lights and shades of rhetorical relief. It would seem suf- 
ficiently plain that a rhetorical sense is no less vital than a 
grammatical. 

“Finally, when the group of words in question has been 
surveyed in turn by each of the three powers of observa- 
tion of which we have been speaking, it must be closely in- 
spected by the fourth sense, the logical power of inference. 
And this must combine into one product the different im- 
pressions conveyed to the mind by the other three, to give us 
a clear idea of the meaning of the word-group as a whole. 

“By these four steps, then, the first of the two processes 
in translation, that is to say, apprehension, is now com- 
plete for one group of words. But before passing to the 
second process, expression, or translation proper, the next 
word-group is to be attacked in the same way as before, 
each of the four special senses having its part to play. 
Every temptation to take the leap before the look, to at- 
tempt to express what is still imperfectly apprehended 
should be carefully avoided. It is only when we have handled 
each group separately, and have by this strategic advance 


298 


THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


at length reached the end of the sentence, that we are really 
prepared to translate at all. 

“Of course, this method, based upon phrase and clause- 
units, meets the instant objection that, on first reading over 
a Latin sentence, a student often fails to mark off such 
units in his mind, seeing nothing but words and finding his 
way slowly to a tentative and often incorrect grouping. 
But this is merely to admit one of the saddest defects of 
our elementary training. Not to see the woods for the trees, 
not to see the group for the words which compose it, sug- 
gests the need of looking well to the use we are making of 
our vision. Such myopia can surely be corrected, and by 
grammatical glasses, too. But this can be done only by di- 
recting a large proportion of our grammar questions to the 
one end of recognition and identification of these large units 
—an aim of infinitely more utility ae the labelling and 
pigeon-holing of syntactical specimens.” 


The following paragraphs are from the prdiniiuaes Re- 


port of the Committee on the Junior High School Syllabus in 
Latin for the State of New York (1920), pp. 45-47: 


“To accept a Latin sentence in the Latin order involves 
a series of mental operations which, repeated many times 
consciously, tend gradually to become unconscious. In the 
performance of each of these operations the pupil should 
receive constant training so long as he studies Latin with 
progressive development, both in the difficulty of the prob- 
lems presented and in the rapidity with which he is expected 
to solve them. 

“The first operation is the recognition of the forms of 
words including all possibilities, and the growping or 
phrasing of words upon that basis. This process should 
accompany the first reading of a sentence. This ability re- 
quires a better inflectional equipment than simply the ca- 
pacity to repeat paradigms. It involves constant drill in 
carefully selected forms and combinations that experience 
shows to be the chief stumbling blocks. 

“Tt is not so much inability to decline ille, dominus, rea, 
etc., that causes difficulty in analyzing the forms and groups 


APPENDIX B 299 


of a sentence, but rather inability quickly to distinguish 
the varying possibilities of domini, regi, illi, acri, mari, 
actét, capt, cept, doni, etc., or of capita, stella, dona, ama. 
In other words, there should be systematic selective drill in 
comparing and discriminating between forms, for the pur- 
pose of giving this power to recognize related groups 
promptly. This drill should be supplemented by insistence 
upon proper grouping in writing and reading. A valuable 
device is to require pupils to indicate by vertical lines or 
dots the groups of an advance sentence. 

“Associated with this training should go training in 
eliminating ideas inconsistent with the meaning of the word 
or with the context and in estimating relative chances. For 
example, viro beginning a sentence will regularly be dative 
case, unless it forms an ablative absolute, while agro will 
usually be ablative. For, where a doubtful dative-ablative 
form refers to a person, it is regularly dative; when it re- 
fers to a thing, it is regularly ablative. 

“All possibilities not eliminated must be consciously held 
in suspense and training: in anticipating the various pos- 
sible conclusions consistent with the context is an essential 
element in insuring suspended judgments and not simply 
suspended forms. Thus the process becomes a means of de- 
veloping general powers of logical inference. 

“Training in recognizing the decisive factor that resolves 
the suspense is the final indispensable element. 

“Regarding the details of carrying out this process the 
committee makes several recommendations: 


(a) Daily class work on at least one sentence to be read 
and analyzed group by group. 

(b) Daily assignments of at least one advance sentence 
accompanied by explicit directions and questions to 
guide the pupil in carrying out the method in his 
study. 

(c) Constant interchange of this method with one in 
which the pupil is asked to give the meaning of the 
sentence as quickly as possible with the expectation 
that some of the conscious training will carry over 
unconsciously. 


300 


(d) 


(f) 


(g) 


(h) 


THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


Insistence that pupils in their home study should 
follow the method illustrated in the classroom, ask- 
ing and answering their own questions. ‘This in- 
volves the reading of a smaller amount than is now 
required. Ultimately those pupils for whom Latin 
becomes an actual tool in college work will receive 
the benefit of such training in increased speed, while 
those for whom Latin will never become an end in it- 
self are interested, not in the amount read, but in 
the result secured from reading. There is no real 
conflict here between the college student and the 
non-college student. Colleges should welcome such 
a preparation, even if it means a cutting down of 
the amount read. 

The drawing up and memorization of a definite out- 
line of procedure. The ability to state the theoret- 
ical procedure does not guarantee the ability to ap- 
ply it, any more than the ability to state a gram- 
matical rule insures the ability to apply it. It bears 
the same relation to correct procedure as a gram- 
matical rule does to correct syntax and is equally 
indispensable. 

The study and ultimate memorization of model sen- 
tences containing typical thought developments, 
bearing to application the same relation that the 
memorization of the first declension bears to the ap- 
plication of the forms learned. It constitutes a 
reservoir from which to draw. 

Avoidance in the early part of the work of sentences 
of the ‘Marcus est agricola’ type which are under- 
standable and translatable without regard to the 
endings. Such sentences create false impressions of 
the genius of the Latin sentence and encourage the 
neglect of that element upon which an ultimate 
mastery of the Latin genius depends, the force of 
endings. 

Emphasis upon the oral reading of the Latin as the 
first step in preparing a lesson, the invariable first 
step in all sight work. 


APPENDIX B 301 


(i) A definite but limited amount of oral Latin of a 
very simple type as an aid to the pupil in gaining 
the conception of what it means to accept thought 
directly when expressed in a foreign tongue.” 


The following “Type Lesson in Sight Translation” is taken 
from the Pennsylvania Syllabus in Latin for High Schools 
(1923) : 


“Fyrom the beginning the pupil is led to see that he is 
learning to understand a Latin sentence just as the Romans 
did, gaining a tentative meaning of its various elements 
but reserving final judgment as to forms, meanings, and 
constructions until the end of the passage has been reached. 
It was, of course, impossible for a Roman, while listening 
to a speech, to search first for the subject, then for the 
verb, and so on. Nor is the pupil, though just beginning the 
study of Latin, to be allowed to proceed in such a mechan- 
ical way. } 

“Let the following sentence serve as an illustration: 
Caesar, his rebus impulsus, equitatum omnem prima nocte 
ad castra hostium mittit. The class or individual pupil first 
reads the sentence as a whole, without making any effort at 
translation. However, while reading the Latin in this way, 
he makes every effort to gain its meaning. The sentence is 
then studied in detail. As soon as possible, facts like those 
noted below are elicited by means of questions to the class, 
all the pupils participating in the work. At the beginning 
of the course, the teacher might proceed as follows: 


Caesar: Noun, nominative singular masculine, meaning 
‘Caesar.’ Since it stands first in the sentence, and is nom- 
inative, it is probably the subject. 


his rebus impulsus: his rebus naturally go together, both 
being in the dative or the ablative plural. They are prob- 
ably ablative of means with impulsus, since there is no 
possible use of the dative with the participle. It is prob- 
able that impulsus, being a perfect participle, in the 
nominative singular masculine, agrees with Caesar, 
though this can not yet be regarded as certain. Rebus 


302 


THE CLASSICAL INVESTIGATION 


has so many meanings that only the context can show 
which is correct. Connect impulsus with English ‘impulse’ 
and ‘impel.’ 


equitutum omnem: Case? Accusative singular masculine. 
Construction? Probably direct object of a verb occur- 
ring later in the sentence, as no preposition precedes. 
Hint: Watch for transitive verb. 


prima nocte: Case? Ablative singular feminine. Construc- 
tion? Obviously ablative of time when or within which, 
probably the former on account of prima. 


ad castra hostium: Case? Castra may be nominative or 
accusative plural neuter: but since the word follows ad, 
its interpretation as a nominative becomes immediately 
impossible. Because of its case ending the form of hos- 
tiwm must be that of the genitive plural. The Reseda 
is its only reasonable construction. 


mittit: Form? Third singular present indicative active of 
a transitive verb. Use? As the last word in the sentence 
has been reached, it must be the main verb; and as Caesar 
is the only nominative Caesar must be the subject. All 
the parts of the sentence now fit together perfectly, and 
suspense is ended. 


““At the beginning each step is taken consciously, to in- 


sure recognition of all the possibilities of form, meaning, 
and construction; but if sufficient drill is given these pro- 
cesses will become automatic.” 


INDEX 


Axsport-TRrABvueE scales, 69 

Adams study, 89, 109, 116, 164 

Advisory Committee, meetings 
of, 8; personnel of, 4 

aims, see objectives 

allusions, better understanding 
of, 66-7 

amount of reading, 106-113, 
120-1 

analyses, ability to make, 61-2 

Arms-Bogart-Morrison study, 99 

attainment of objectives, test- 
ing, 215-7 

authors, classical, 129; literary 
qualities of, 68-70; personal- 
ity of, 68; selection of, 101-2, 
115-23 


Bares study, 50 

Briggs study, 143 

Brown scales, 69, 195 
Brueckner study, 58, 91, 92 
Burton study, 104 


cANDIpaATEs, records of, 238-46 

Clark study, 66 

classical and non-classical pu- 
pils, 237-46 

Cole study, 54 

collaborators and coéperating 
agencies, 9-13 

College Board records, 237-46 

college entrance, examinations, 
167; requirements, 118-9, 162-8 

college graduates, suggestions 
by, 180-1 

Colthurst study, 88, 109, 111, 
116-7 

Committees: Advisory, 4, 8; Re- 
gional, 5-7, 8; Special, 4; Spe- 
cial Investigating, 4, 8-9 


conferences, preliminary, 7-8 

content, changes in, 86-8, 9%, 
101-6; examination of, 90-128; 
present, 88-9; recommenda- 
tions, 98, 123-4 

Coxe study, 48, 213 

Crathorne study, 58 


Davis-Hicks test, 65 
departments, state, 25 
Dunbar study, 170, 175 


ENGLAND, 112-3, 163, 262-3, 267 

English, correct and effective, 
45-8; derivatives, 42-4, 100, 
210-3, 232; improvement in 
literary quality of, 70-1; 
Latin words, etc., in, 41-2, 
134, 214; principles of, 49-51; 
standard of, 97, 201-4; spell- 
ing of, 48-9, 213; technical 
terms in, 51-2, 214; under- 
standing of, 44-5 

Enlow study, 51 

enrolment, 16-17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 
29, 31, 250-1 

examinations, college entrance, 
167-8; questions analysed, 177- 
9 


FIVE-YEAR course, 81 
foreign languages, see modern , 
forms, 140-3, 160-2, 228-33 
four-year course, 79-80 
France, 256, 262-5, 267 
freedom of choice, 118-23 
French, 21, 52-4 


Germany, 111-2, 228, 262, 265-7 
Godsey test, 138 
Greek, 14-28, 252; German- 


304 INDEX 


Spanish, 21; and Latin, 253-6; 
for Latin teachers, 255 
Grise study, 78-4, 172, 183 
Grise and Swan studies, 90, 95, 
207, 209 ‘ 


Hann study, 69 

Hamblen and Haskell studies, 
43 

Heald study, 54 

Henmon study, 41, 52 

Hicks study, 65 

Hill study, 53, 54 


IDENTICAL elements, recognition 
of, 58, 233 

inferences, drawing of, 60-1 

instructors, comments of, 108 

Italy, 262, 267 


Jones study, 88, 109, 111, 117 
Judd and Buswell investigation, 
95 


Kine and Bunyan studies, 66 
Kirby study, 53, 239 


LANGUAGE structure, knowledge 
of, 71-2; general principles of, 
221 

Latin pupils, superiority of, 
64-5, 237-46 

Latin, easy, 125 

Lawler study, 48 

literary appreciation, 68-70 


McGorry study, 52 

methods of teaching, analytical, 
197; direct, 233-5; examina- 
tion of present, 171-6; general 
principles, 181-8, 198-201; 
problem of, 170; suggestions 
regarding, 176-7 

modern languages, 18-21, 23 
52-4, 134 


> 


Newcome study, 239 

OBJECTIVE, immediate, 32, 78, 79, 
81, 99. 

objectives, cultural, 34, 62-72; 
disciplinary, 34, 55-62; dis- 
tinction between, 32; evalua- 
tion of, 36-72; instrumental, 
33, 38; relative emphasis on, 
77-82; tentative list of, 33-5; 
the two interdependent, 83- 
4; valid, 36, 78, 79-82 

O’Shea study, 38, 122 


Pounp-Hetre study, 89, 171, 
178, 216 

power to read and understand, 
83, 93-4, 169 

preparation, time given to, 90, 
98 

Pressey study, 51, 137-8 

programme of investigation, 2-3 


READING, Collateral in English, 
151-6, 204-6; Latin, 38-40, 83 
(Note), 94-6, 124-33, 144-51, 
188-201 

reflective thinking, 60-1 

Regional Committees, meetings 
of, 8; personnel of, 5-7 

requirements, college entrance, 
162-8; recommended, 167-8 

Roman virtues, 67 

Romance languages, 215, 228 


Romans, better appreciation of, 


62-6 


Scurck study, 51, 52 

seeing relations, habit of, 217 

six-year course, 81-2, 257-62 

social institutions, attitude to- 
ward, 67-8 

Spanish, 21, 54, 254 

Special Committee, 4 

Special Investigating Commit- 
tee, meetings of, 8-9; person- 
nel of, 4 


INDEX 305 


students, former and present, 
opinions of, 72-7 

superintendents, attitude of, 18, 
25-8 

Swan study, 74-7 

syntax, 135-40, 157-60, 217-28 


TEACHERS, 17, 21, 25, 251; quali- 
fications of, 22-3; recommen- 
dations of, 101-23 

teaching, changes suggested in, 
180-1; combined, 256-7; gen- 
eral principles, 181-8; present 
methods of, 171-9; recom- 
mendations, 188-233 

technical phases, 105 

Thorndike studies, 44, 46, 50, 60 


Thorndike-Grinstead study, 42, 
85 

Thorndike-Ruger studies, 42, 46 

time element, 107-113 

transfer, automatic, 56-8; of 
training, 183-8 

translation, function of, 201 

Tyler-Pressey test, 142 


Unt studies, 70, 90 
Ullman study, 40 
Ullman-Kirby test, 93, 194 


Vatues, 72-7 
vocabulary, 133-5, 157, 206-10 


Warker study, 41 














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